NORTH  CAROLINA  STATE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 


S02047816  S 


This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated 
below  and  is  subject  to  an  overdue 
fine  as  posted  at  the  circulation  desk. 


EXCEPTION:  Date  due  will  be 
earlier  if  this  item  is  RECALLED. 


200M/06-99-991212 


BETTER 
DAIRY  FARMING 

THE  BREEDING,  FEEDING, 

HANDLING  AND  CARE  OF 

DAIRY  GATTLE 

BY 

E.  S.  SAVAGE,  B.S.A.,  Ph.D. 


PROFESSOR  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 
CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 

PROFESSOR   OF   ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN  1922-1923 


AND 

if  A.  MAYNARD,  A.B.,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 
CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


"Better  Farming,  Better  Business, 
Better  Living" 


ITHACA,  NEW  YORK 
THE  SAVAGE-MAYNARD  COMPANY 

1923 


PRINTED  IX  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


o* 

4 


Copyright,  1923 

BY 

THE  SAVAGE-MAYNARD  COMPANY 


Set  Up  and  Electrotyped 
Published  June,  1923 


STfjt  Uaknsftif  tyrtts 

R.  K.  DONNELLEY  &  SONS  COMPANY 
CHICAGO 


N,  C  State  Collet 


PREFACE 

Professor  E.  H.  Farrington  of  the  department  of  dairy  hus- 
bandry at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  asks  his  class  of  farm  boys  at 
the  end  of  each  term  this  question,  "  What  languages  do  you  speak 
besides  English?"  One  boy  answered,  "I  can  speak  a  little  Nor- 
wegian and  a  little  German,  and  I  understand  horses  and  cows." 

That  is  the  very  object  in  writing  this  book.  We  want  to  make 
the  language  of  cows  a  little  better  understood  by  the  dairymen 
of  this  country.  To  know  about  cows,  the  farms  and  the  best 
farm  practices  in  different  parts  of  our  great  country  will  make 
a  man  a  better  farmer  on  his  own  farm.  With  the  reading  of  this 
book  we  hope  that  farmers  may  have  their  vision  broadened  and 
perhaps  a  suggestion  will  be  found  that  will  change  a  practice  so 
that  a  little  more  money  may  be  made  and  saved. 

At  the  time  of  writing  this  preface  farming  is  said  to  be  in  a 
bad  way.  The  lawmakers  and  the  others  are  all  busy  trying  to 
help  the  farmer.  Some  good  will  come  of  their  efforts.  We  think, 
however,  that  the  most  good  will  come  through  the  efforts  of  the 
farmer  himself.  He  will  build  for  himself  on  his  own  farm  and 
will  build  for  himself  and  for  his  neighbors  when  he  joins  with 
them  in  the  community  and  state  enterprises  which  he  will  help 
to  build,  at  the  foundation  first,  in  his  own  community.  Co-opera- 
tive effort  will  make  for  "  better  farming,  better  business  and 
better  living." 

The  dairy  farmer  is  the  best  off  of  all.  Conditions  in  Wisconsin 
and  New  York  and  the  other  dairy  states  show  that.  This  is  no 
time  for  anything  but  optimism  because  the  demand  for  milk  and 
dairy  products  is  growing  and  the  market  for  these  is  the  founda- 
tion of  the  business.  With  the  market  for  milk  and  dairy  products 
becoming  increasingly  good  the  market  for  surplus  dairy  cattle 
will  become  better. 

The  object  in  writing  this  book  is  to  help  some  with  all  this.  We 
have  enjoyed  writing  it.   It  has  served  greatly  to  make  our  think- 

iii 

±1823 


IV 


PREFACE 


ing  more  definite  and  to  clarify  our  idea?.  We  hope  you  will  enjoy 
reading  it.  With  design  we  have  been  somewhat  dogmatic.  You 
will  not  agree  with  all  the  statements.  We  have  read  much  of  the 
evidence  on  the  different  points,  have  weighed  it  for  and  against, 
made  up  our  minds  and  given  you  our  opinion.  This  opinion  is 
the  best  solution  of  the  problems  at  the  present  time  that  we  can 

find. 

We  wish  to  take  the  opportunity  at  this  time  to  express  our 
appreciation  to  Professor  H.  H.  Wing.  For  many  years  we  have 
been  associated  with  him  in  the  department  of  animal  husbandry 
at  Cornell  University,  of  which  he  is  the  head.  His  ideas  have  been 
sound,  his  direction  of  our  study  and  work  all  that  could  be  desired. 
Living  and  working  with  him  is  a  pleasure. 

Members  of  the  groups  of  teachers  in  the  departments  of  animal 
husbandry  at  Cornell  University  and  at  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin have  helped  us  many  times  in  crystallizing  the  opinions 
that  we  have  given  to  our  readers.  Professor  H.  E.  Babcock, 
Manager  of  the  G.L.F.  Exchange  of  Ithaca.  New  York,  has  also 
helped.  To  all  these  and  all  breeders  who  have  contributed  pic- 
tures and  facts  about  their  animals  we  express  our  appreciation. 

Professor  F.  B.  Morrison  has  very  kindly  allowed  us  to  use 
some  of  the  tables  of  the  book  " Feeds  and  Feeding"  by  Henry  and 
Morrison.  This  has  saved  us  a  great  deal  of  work  in  our  compila- 
tion.  We  appreciate  his  courtesy. 


Ithaca.  New  York 
June  15,  1923. 


CONTEXTS 

PAGE 

Introduction.   The  General  Problems  of  Dairy  Farming vii 

Part  I.   Feeding  for  Milk  Production 
Better  Dairy  Farming  Through  Better  Feeding 

CHAPTER 

I.   Feeding  the  Dry  Cow — The  Importance  of  Minerals.  ...  1 

II.    Feeding  through  the  Lactation  Period 9 

III.  Feeding  on  Pasture 23 

IV.  Feeding  Calves 30 

V.    Feeding  Yearlings  and  Two-year-olds 46 

VI.    Feeding  for  Official  Records 49 

VII.   How  to  Buy  Feeds 61 

VIII..  The  Co-operative  Purchase  and  Distribution  of  Feeds.  ...  70 

Part  II.   The  Cow 
Better  Dairy  Farming  Through  Better  Cows 

IX.    The  Ideal  Cow 82 

X.    Purebreds  or  Grades 92 

XI.    The  Leading  Dairy  Breeds 98 

Holstein-Friesian 98 

Guernsey 104 

Jersey.." 107 

Ayrshire Ill 

Brown  Swiss 114 

Milking  Shorthorn 114 

Part  III.    The  Bull 
Better  Dairy  Farming  Through  Better  Breeding 

XII.    The  Ideal  Bull 117 

XIII.    Buying  a  Pure  Bred  Bull 121 

XIV.    Feeding,  Developing  and  Exercising  the  Herd  Bull 132 

Part  IV.   Dairy  Farm  Practice 
Better  Dairy  Farming  Through  Better  Practice 

XV.    Good  Breeding  Practices 136 

XVI.    The  Control  of  Tuberculosis 144 

XVII.    Abortion  and  Other  Diseases  Interfering  with  Breeding.  .  154 

v 


VI 


CONTEXTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XVIII.  A  Few  Common  Ailments  of  Cattle 158 

XIX.  The  Dairy  Barn  and  Other  Buildings 162 

XX.  How  to  Produce  Clean  Milk— Milking  Machines 169 

XXI.  Buying  and  Selling  Dairy  Cattle— Fitting  for  Sale 175 

XXII.  Herd  Improvement — Keeping  Production  Records 183 


XXIII. 
XXIV. 


XXV. 

XXVI. 
XXVII. 

XXVIII. 


Table  I. 
Table  II. 
Table  III. 


Part  V.    The  Feeds 
Better  Dairy  Farming  Through  Better  Feeds 

The  Composition  of  Feeds  and  their  Manorial  Value 189 

The  Dry  Roughages 197 

Alfalfa.  Red  Clover  and  Other  Legumes 198 

The  Xon-Legumes 207 

The  Succulent  Roughages 209 

Silage,  Pasture,  Soilage,  Roots,  Other  Succulent  Crops.  .  209 

Corn  and  Wheat  and  Their  By-Products 221 

Other  Grains  and  Their  By-Products 226 

Oats,  Barley,  Buckwheat,  Rye,  Rice 226 

The  Oil  Meals  and  Miscellaneous  By-Products 232 

Appendix 
Analysis  of  Feeds  and  Computation  of  Rations 

Analyses  of  Feedingstuffs 238 

Morrison  Feeding  Standard  for  Dairy  Cows 241 

Weights  of  Various  Concentrates 246 


NOTE 
We  have  worked  up  a  careful  index.  Reference  to  it  in  the  back  of  the 
book  will  enable  readers  to  find  things  quickly.  As  an  aid  to  cross  reference 
the  paragraphs  have  been  numbered.  Bold-face  numbers  found  in  the  read- 
ing matter  refer  to  paragraphs  containing  additional  information  on  the 
same  topic. 


INTRODUCTION 
THE  GENERAL  PROBLEMS   OF   DAIRY   FARMING 

The  great  problem  in  dairy  farming  is  to  breed  better  cows  that 
will  produce  more  milk  at  less  cost  and  that  will  produce  offspring 
that  will  sell  for  more  money.  We  have  addressed  ourselves  to  this 
problem  frankly.  More  profit  from  the  cows  will  mean  "  better 
farming,  better  business,  better  living." 

1.  The  problem  of  feeding. — A  cow  inherits  what  she  will  be 
from  her  dam  and  sire.  The  development  of  that  inheritance 
depends  on  the  feed  and  handling  that  she  gets.  In  Part  I  we  have 
treated  this  feeding  and  development  through  the  year-round 
cycle,  starting  with  the  cow  as  soon  as  she  has  dried  up  and  carry- 
ing her  through  the  entire  lactation  period,  both  in  the  barn  and 
on  pasture.  The  development  of  the  young  stock  is  a  part  of  our 
problem.    Some  of  the  finer  points  in  feeding  high  production 

fsfor  records  are  studied. 

2.  Buying  and  distributing  feed.— Buying  feed  and  the 
distribution  of  feeds  co-operatively  are  treated  fully.  We  must  not 
forget  that  one  of  the  main  parts  of  feeding  dairy  cattle  is  the 
correct  selection  and  purchase  of  the  raw  materials  of  the  ration. 
Co-operative  effort  on  the  part  of  farmers  in  solving  their  problems 
is  new.  We  have  given,  in  Chapter  VIII,  a  brief  history  of  its 
development  in  the  purchase  of  feeds. 

3.  The  problem  of  better  cows.— The  unit  of  success  in 
better  dairy  farming  is  the  cow.  Therefore,  we  have  named 
Part  II  "The  Cow,"  and  have  contributed  what  we  know  to  help 
form  an  ideal  in  the  minds  of  our  readers  with  some  suggestions 
as  to  how  to  realize  that  ideal.  All  the  dairy  breeds  are  briefly 
described.  By  a  study  of  the  leading  types  of  cows  and  their 
records  we  may  learn  how  far  progress  has  gone  in  successful  units 
in  each  breed  up  to  the  present. 

4.  The  problem  of  better  bulls.— The  real  problems  of 
better  dairy  farming  come  in  the  department  of  breeding.    We 

vii 


viii  INTRODUCTION 

know  much  more  about  feeding  and  we  can  control  nutrition  to  a 
large  extent.  But  we  cannot  control  inheritance  as  measurably  as 
we  would  like.  In  Part  III  the  question  of  better  bulls  and  how  to 
get  them  and  how  to  feed  and  handle  them  is  given  careful  con- 
sideration. 

5.  Dairy  farm  practice. — We  have  brought  together  in  Part 
IV  under  this  head  the  best  material  we  can  find  on  the  control  of 
tuberculosis  and  abortion,  the  greatest  disease  problems  there  are 
in  Animal  Husbandry.  Some  suggestions  are  given  in  the  produc- 
tion of  clean  milk,  buying  and  selling  dairy  cattle,  and  herd 
improvement.  Good  practices  are  important.  The  more  we  can 
learn  about  them  the  better. 

6.  The  feeds. — Good  roughage  is  the  foundation  of  feeding. 
The  man  who  can  get  and  maintain  good  stands  of  alfalfa,  clover  or 
soybeans  for  hay  and  then  couples  up  with  these  legumes,  good 
silage,  has  his  feeding  problems  three-fourths  solved.  A  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  source,  composition  and  feeding  value  of  the 
various  concentrates  is  necessary  to  know  how  effectively  to 
supplement  this  roughage.  Part  V  gives  methods  of  getting  good 
roughage  on  our  farms  as  well  as  the  composition  of  the  different 
kinds.    Also  the  concentrates  are  fully  described. 

7.  Dairy  husbandry  the  foundation  of  permanent  agri- 
culture.—L.  H.  Bailey  in  his  book  "The  Holy  Earth"  says,  "The 
surface  of  the  earth  is  particularly  within  the  care  of  the  farmer. 
He  keeps  it  for  his  own  sustenance  and  gain,  but  his  gain  is  also  the 
gain  of  all  the  rest  of  us. 

"He  is  the  agent  or  the  representative  of  society  to  guard  and 
subdue  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  he  is  the  agent  of  the  divinity 
that  made  it.  He  must  exercise  his  dominion  with  due  regard  to 
all  these  obligations.  He  is  trustee.  The  productiveness  of  the 
earth  must  increase  from  generation  to  generation;  this  also  is  his 
obligation." 

This  obligation  is  not  a  heavy  one  to  the  dairyman.  The  dairy 
farmer  is  the  permanent  farmer  and  the  satisfied  farmer.  May  he 
find  something  in  this  book  to  interest  him  and  encourage  him. 


Part  I 
FEEDING  FOR  MILK  PRODUCTION 


CHAPTER  I 

FEEDING  THE  DRY  COW  — THE  IMPORTANCE 
OF  MINERALS 

In  beginning  a  discussion  of  the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle  we  will 
start  with  a  cow  that  has  completed  one  or  more  lactations  and 
tell  how  to  feed  her  while  dry  to  prepare  her  for  calving  and  for 
the  next  lactation  period. 

8.  Drying  off  the  cow. — Everybody  will  agree  that  the  cows 
should  have  a  rest  between  lactations.  It  is  our  opinion  that  the  rest 
period  should  be  six  to  eight  weeks  in  length.  Cows  in  thin  flesh 
should  have  a  full  two  months  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  all  cows 
would  benefit  by  that  much  rest.  It  is  good  practice  with  heifers  so 
to  breed  them  for  their  second  calf  that  they  can  be  milked  for  a 
full  year  and  still  have  a  two-months'  rest.  This  practice  has  a  good 
effect  in  influencing  the  length  of  their  later  lactation  periods.  With 
the  exception  of  heifers,  the  cow  should  drop  a  calf  once  a  year. 

Having  decided  how  long  the  dry  period  shall  be,  the  question 
that  next  arises  is  how  the  cow  is  to  be  dried  off.  This  is  a  difficult 
thing  with  some  cows  and  one  which  must  be  done  gradually  to 
avoid  injury  to  the  udder.  The  first  step  is  to  cut  down  on  the 
grain  ration.  If  the  cow  is  producing  a  lot  of  milk  at  the  time,  it 
may  be  best  to  cut  out  the  grain  altogether  and  perhaps  even  to 
substitute  poorer  hay  for  any  clover  or  alfalfa  she  may  be  receiving. 
However,  this  last  step  should  not  generally  be  necessary,  and,  for 
reasons  that  will  be  pointed  out  later,  we  like  to  have  the  cow 
receive  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  throughout  the  dry  period. 

For  the  cow  on  pasture  it  may  be  necessary  to  bring  her  into 
the  barn  and  give  her  hay  only.  With  the  cutting  down  of  the  feed 

1 


2  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

the  cow  should  be  milked  only  once  a  day.  After  a  day  or  two 
this  should  be  changed  to  once  in  two  days  and  then  to  once  in 
three,  etc.  When  the  cow  will  go  five  or  six  days  without  milking, 
without  the  udder  becoming  hard  or  inflamed,  it  is  generally  safe 
to  stop  milking  her  altogether.  However,  she  should  be  watched 
for  several  days  thereafter  for  signs  of  udder  trouble. 

9.  Feeding  the  dry  cow. — The  farmer  can  make  no  more 
serious  mistake  than  to  think  that  because  the  cow  is  not  giving 
milk  during  the  dry  period  the  character  and  quality  of  her  feed 
is  of  small  importance.  It  is  true  that  she  does  not  require  as  much 
feed  and  that  its  protein  content  may  be  lower,  but  she  must  have 
the  amount  and  kind  that  will  properly  develop  the  foetus,  put 
her  in  condition  to  stand  the  strain  of  calving  and  build  her  up 
for  the  next  lactation.  The  feed  should  be  such  as  to  keep  her  in 
good  health  and  vigor  and  put  on  some  fat. 

10.  The  grain  mixture. — The  grain  ration  should  be  made  up 
from  feeds  fattening  in  nature.  We  have  used  the  following  mixture 
with  good  success: 

100  lbs.  hominy  feed 

100  lbs.  ground  oats 

100  lbs.  wheat  bran 
50  lbs.  oil  meal 
Oil  meal  is  generally  rather  expensive  but  it  should  be  an  in- 
gredient of  the  ration  because  of  its  value  as  a  conditioner.    The 
ration  should  be  bulky  and  laxative.    A  variety  of  feeds  is  of  less 
importance  than  with  milking  animals. 

The  amount  of  grain  to  be  fed  will  depend  on  the  roughage. 
With  plenty  of  the  best  roughage  the  dry  cow  should  receive  at 
least  three  to  four  pounds  of  grain  a  day.  The  amount  may  be 
doubled  to  advantage  with  more  valuable  animals  particularly 
where  records  are  sought.  Succulent  feed  is  important  during  the 
dry  period  because  it  is  healthful,  cooling  and  aids  in  keeping  the 
animal  in  proper  condition.  Thus  the  dry  cow  should  have  all  the 
silage  she  will  clean  up.  Where  silage  is  limited  or  unavailable, 
roots,  such  as  mangels,  rutabagas,  or  beet  pulp  mixed  with  diluted 
molasses,  make  a  satisfactory  substitute. 


FEEDING   THE   DRY   COW  3 

11.  Importance  of  good  roughage.— Many  farmers  think 
that  inasmuch  as  the  dry  cow  needs  less  protein  they  can  replace  the 
legume  hay  (clover  or  alfalfa)  at  this  time  by  a  poorer  roughage.  If 
protein  were  the  only  consideration  here  they  might  be  right.  How- 
ever, legume  roughage  has  other  advantages  and  it  is  very  desirable 
that  the  dry  cow  have  her  share.  Such  roughage  is  the  best  source 
of  lime  of  any  of  our  feeding  stuffs  and  recent  work  has  shown  it  to 
be  very  important  that  the  dry  cow  receive  liberal  amounts  of  lime. 

12.  Minerals  in  the  dairy  ration. — There  are  a  dozen  or 
more  different  minerals  required  by  the  animal  body.  However, 
only  two  of  them,  aside  from  those  supplied  by  common  salt  and 
perhaps  a  source  of  iodine  in  the  goiter  belt,  are  at  all  likely  to  be 
furnished  by  the  ordinary  ration  in  less  amount  than  the  animal 
needs.  These  two  are  lime  and  phosphorus.  They  form  90  per  cent  of 
the  mineral  matter  of  the  body  and  over  50  per  cent  of  that  of  milk. 


Segis  Pietertje  Prospect  221846 

World's  Champion  cow  in  milk  production.  Yearly  record  37,381.4  pounds 
of  milk,  a  daily  average  of  102.4  pounds  for  365  days.  Owned  by  Carnation 
Stock  Farms,  Seattle,  Wash. 


4  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

Thus  we  can  understand  why  the  dairy  cow  needs  plenty.  During 
the  period  of  heaviest  milk  production  she  does  not  seem  to  be 
able  to  assimilate  enough  lime  and  phosphorus  out  of  her  feed. 
On  the  other  hand  some  of  these  minerals  which  she  secretes  in  her 
milk  she  takes  out  of  her  bones.  This  has  been  observed  to  occur 
even  where  legume  roughage  and  mineral  supplements  are  fed. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  lactation  period,  and  particularly  while 
dry,  the  minerals  removed  from  the  bones  are  restored,  provided 
of  course  that  the  feed  contains  them  in  a  form  the  cow  can  use. 
Sudden  falling  off  of  cows  in  production  after  a  good  start  in  a 
lactation  period  may  be  caused  by  failure  to  build  up  the  mineral 
reserves  during  the  dry  period.  There  is  evidence  that  certain 
breeding  troubles  have  a  similar  cause.  How  then  may  these  min- 
eral reserves  best  be  built  up? 

The  first  consideration  is  feeds  rich  in  the  minerals  in  question. 
A  good  grain  mixture  will  supply  ample  phosphorus.  Legume  hay 
is  rich  in  lime.  Where  these  feeds  are  liberally  fed,  the  mineral 
needs  may  be  taken  care  of  as  well  as  we  know  how  to  at  present. 
There  are  some  recent  experiments,  however,  that  may  have  a 
great  practical  bearing  in  this  connection. 

13.  Lime  and  phosphorus  important.— Adequate  mineral 
nutrition  is  not  simply  a  case  of  supplying  adequate  amounts  in 
the  feed.  There  seems  to  be  a  limit  to  the  lime  and  phosphorus 
that  a  dairy  cow  can  assimilate  from  her  feed  no  matter  how  much 
may  be  supplied.  Recently  it  has  been  found  that  there  is  some- 
thing, probably  a  vitamine,  in  green  feed  and  in  leafy  roughage 
cured  in  a  certain  way  that  aids  in  lime  assimilation.  In  fact,  it 
has  been  shown  that  during  the  heavy  lactation,  when  lime  and 
phosphorus  are  ordinarily  taken  out  of  the  bones,  this  can  be  pre- 
vented by  the  use  of  the  feeds  mentioned.  This  means  that  the 
cow  on  pasture  should  more  readily  build  up  her  reserves.  The 
method  of  curing  the  leafy  roughage  so  as  to  preserve  this  factor 
responsible  for  lime  assimilation  has  not  been  definitely  worked 
out  but  it  may  not  be  long  before  we  will  know  just  how  to  do  it 
and  thus  have  a  feed  which  will  assure  adequate  mineral  assimila- 
tion at  all  times.   It  is  evident  from  work  done  to  date  that  curing 


FEEDING   THE   DRY   COW  5 

under  caps  preserves  the  factor  better  than  long  exposure  in  the 
windrow.    (38) 

A  further  question  arises  as  to  whether  the  dry  cow  should  re- 
ceive a  source  of  lime  and  phosphorus  in  addition  to  her  feed. 
With  a  good  grain  mixture  liberally  fed  and  ample  legume  roughage 
we  have  no  proof  that  such  addition  will  help,  at  least  until  we 
know  more  definitely  how  to  cure  the  roughage  so  as  to  preserve 
the  factor  mentioned.  With  poorer  roughage  we  think  it  may  be 
advantageous  to  add  a  source  of  lime,  at  least,  to  the  grain  ration. 
Pure,  finely  ground  limestone  is  a  cheap  and  readily  available 
source.  Both  lime  and  phosphorus  are  supplied  by  steamed  bone 
meal  or  by  ground  rock  phosphate.  AVhere  the  dry  cow  is  on 
pasture,  we  would  add  one  of  the  above  mineral  sources  to  take 
advantage  of  the  factor  aiding  assimilation  supplied  by  the  grass. 
We  suggest  feeding  two  to  four  ounces  per  day. 

14.  Liberal  feeding  good  insurance.— We  have  advocated 
liberal  feeding  during  the  dry  period.  It  means  a  stronger  calf 
and  a  good  send-off  for  the  next  lactation.  A  good  dairy  cow  will 
return  to  the  milk  pail  in  quantity  of  milk  and  in  fat  content  the 
fat  put  on  her  back  during  the  dry  period.  We  have  stressed  the 
use  of  silage  and  legume  hay.  Every  dairyman  should  try  to  grow 
more  of  these  feeds.  They  seem  to  us  essential  for  profitable  milk 
production  and  in  Part  V  we  give  some  suggestions  as  to  the  grow- 
ing and  handling  of  these  crops  which  it  is  hoped  will  aid  many 
farmers  to  have  a  larger  supply  of  these  essential  feeds.  However, 
we  know  that  many  dairymen  have  only  a  limited  supply  of  legume 
hay  and  silage,  particularly  in  certain  years.  The  alternative  is  to 
use  the  best  roughage  available,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  poorer 
the  roughage,  the  more  grain  is  needed. 

Where  the  dry  cow  is  on  pasture,  of  course  she  does  not  require 
the  feeding  we  have  outlined.  Where  the  pasture  is  good,  she 
needs  no  additional  feed,  but  as  the  pasture  fails,  both  grain  and 
roughage  should  be  given.  Where  little  feed  is  obtained  from  the 
pasture  the  supplementary  feeding  should  be  nearly  as  liberal  as 
that  we  have  suggested  for  stable  conditions.  In  Chapter  III  feed- 
ing on  pasture  is  taken  up  in  detail.    (49) 


6  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

15.  Feeding  at  calving  time. — About  a  week  before  calving 
time  the  cow  should  be  placed  in  dry  quarters,  well  ventilated  but 
protected  from  drafts.  There  should  be  plenty  of  bedding.  At 
this  time  her  ration  should  be  laxative  and  cooling.  The  feeding 
of  silage  should  be  liberal.  The  grain  should  be  cut  down  to  perhaps 
half  that  recommended  for  the  dry  cow.  At  this  time  we  would 
change  the  proportions  of  the  grain  mixture  so  that  it  would  con- 
tain relatively  more  wheat  bran  and  oil  meal.  If  no  silage  is  being 
fed  such  a  change  is  especially  desirable.  The  most  important 
thing  at  this  time  is  to  avoid  constipation.  The  grain  mixture  the 
last  few  days  may  consist  entirely  of  bran  and  oil  meal  in  the  ratio 
of  2  :  1,  if  constipation  is  evident.  In  such  a  case  it  may  also  be 
desirable  to  give  a  purgative  such  as  one  pound  of  epsom  salts  or 
one  quart  of  linseed  oil.  If  one  can  be  sure  of  giving  such  a  purga- 
tive within  24  hours  of  calving  it  is  always  a  good  thing  to  do. 
The  cow  should  receive  little  roughage  the  last  day  or  two  so  that 
the  digestive  system  is  not  so  distended  as  to  interfere  with  the 
expulsion  of  the  foetus. 

The  above  applies  to  cows  freshening  out  of  the  pasture  season. 
There  is  no  better  place  for  the  cow  to  drop  her  calf  than  in  a 
clean,  grassy  pasture.  If  it  is  during  the  early  pasture  season,  the 
cow  will  probably  be  receiving  no  grain  or  roughage.  The  pasture 
grass  will  keep  her  in  satisfactory  condition  for  calving.  Where  she 
is  receiving  considerable  supplementary  feed,  as  she  should  where 
the  pasture  is  poor,  this  feed  should  be  regulated  before  calving 
as  we  have  outlined  in  the  above  paragraph. 

The  animal  should  have  access  at  all  times  to  plenty  of  good 
clean  water,  or  if  this  is  not  possible  she  should  be  watered  two  or 
three  times  daily.    The  water  should  never  be  very  cold. 

16.  Udder  troubles. — At  this  time  the  dairyman  must  be  on 
the  lookout  for  udder  troubles.  If  the  cow  is  receiving  plenty  of 
water  and  is  not  constipated  no  fear  need  be  had  for  swollen  and 
caked  udders  as  long  as  hard  feverish  spots  are  not  present.  If 
these  occur  they  are  best  treated  by  rubbing  with  warm  water. 
There  are  many  proprietary  preparations  on  the  market  for  mas- 
saging the  udder  and  the  use  of  one  of  them  or  some  sort  of  grease 


FEEDING   THE   DRY   COW  7 

will  aid  in  keeping  the  udder  from  becoming  irritated  by  the  rub- 
bing, but  it  is  the  latter  which  actually  reduces  the  swelling. 

17.  When  the  calf  is  dropped.— As  soon  as  the  calf  is  born 
any  slime  around  its  nostrils  or  in  its  throat  should  be  removed. 
The  calf  sometimes  strangles  to  death  through  inability  to  breathe 
on  account  of  the  above.    At  birth  the  stump  of  the  navel  cord 


'■'■    - 


The  Right  Kind  of  Jersey  Calf 


should  be  disinfected  with  tincture  of  iodine.    It  can  be  obtained 
at  any  drug  store. 

The  afterbirth  should  drop  away  in  a  few  hours.  What  to  do 
when  the  afterbirth  is  retained  is  a  question  which  puzzles  many. 
To  remove  it  requires  skill,  and  judgment  is  also  needed  to  know 
whether  in  a  given  case  it  should  be  done  at  all.  The  best  general 
advice  we  can  give  is  to  call  a  veterinarian  or  let  the  afterbirth 
alone.  Retained  afterbirth  is  less  likely  to  occur  if  the  cow  has 
been  fed  with  plenty  of  laxative,  succulent  food.    Thus,  the  best 


8  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

way  to  help  solve  the  afterbirth  problem  is  to  feed  properly  before 
calving. 

Unless  milk  fever  is  feared  the  calf  should  be  left  with  its  mother 
for  the  first  two  days,  in  order  that  it  may  get  the  colostrum,  as 
the  first  milk  secreted  is  called.  This  milk  is  laxative  and  it  is 
very  necessary  that  the  new-born  calf  should  have  it. 

For  the  first  three  or  four  days  after  calving  the  cow  should 
receive  only  a  limited  amount  of  feed  and  this  feed  should  be 
laxative  in  nature.  At  the  end  of  this  period,  provided  the  cow 
has  a  good  appetite,  the  feed  may  be  rather  quickly  increased  to 
that  amount  which  was  being  received  before  calving  time,  and 
this  amount  gradually  raised  according  to  her  milk  flow. 

18.  Milk  fever. — Milk  fever  is  a  disease  which  may  occur  with 
any  cow  following  calving  no  matter  how  well  she  is  handled.  It 
seems  especially  likely  to  occur  with  high  producers.  Formerly 
it  was  a  very  serious  trouble  but  the  modern  treatment  of  distending 
the  udder  with  air  is  very  effective  and  few  fatalities  occur  where 
the  treatment  is  used.  Every  dairyman  should  own  a  milk  fever 
outfit  for  emergency  use.  Directions  are  furnished  with  the  outfit. 
However,  because  of  the  possibility  of  infection,  it  is  better  to  call 
a  veterinarian  to  give  the  treatment  and  to  explain  the  details  of 
the  care  needed.  Contrary  to  the  opinion  held  by  many,  it  is  a 
good  thing  to  milk  the  cow  a  little  two  or  three  times  a  day  during 
milk  fever  to  make  sure  that  all  quarters  are  milking  freely. 


CHAPTER   II 
FEEDING   THROUGH   THE   LACTATION   PERIOD 

This  chapter  deals  with  the  feeding  and  management  of  the 
cow  that  has  freshened  and  is  in  full  flow  of  milk.  We  assume  that 
through  her  breeding  she  has  the  proper  capacity  for  milk  pro- 
duction and  that  she  has  been  so  fed  while  dry  as  to  put  her  in 
good  condition. 

19.  Good  roughage.  Clover  and  alfalfa  hay. — The  great- 
est direct  expense  is  for  feed.  Since  home-grown  feeds  are  the 
cheapest,  the  first  thing  to  remember  is  that  the  ration  should  be 
built  around  the  materials  grown  on  the  farm.  The  dairyman 
will  feed  his  cows  cheapest  who  has  plenty  of  good  roughage.  The 
better  the  roughage  the  less  of  the  more  expensive  feeds  he  has 
to  buy. 

The  best  roughage  for  the  dairy  cow  is  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  and 
corn  silage.  The  farmer  who  grows  enough  of  these  feeds  so  that 
his  cows  can  have  all  they  will  eat  has  taken  the  biggest  step 
toward  cheap  milk  production.  Everybody  knows  that  to  get  the 
most  milk  the  cow  must  have  lots  of  protein.  The  high  protein 
feeds  are  the  most  costly.  Since  clover  and  alfalfa  contain  much 
more  protein  than  other  hays,  the  larger  the  amount  of  these 
materials  the  farmer  has,  the  less  of  the  more  expensive  feeds  he 
needs  to  buy. 

It  is  from  the  roughage  that  the  cow  gets  most  of  her  lime,  lots 
of  which  are  required  for  milk  secretion.  Legume  hay  (clover  and 
alfalfa)  contains  three  to  four  times  as  much  lime  as  do  other 
hays,  and  this  is  another  big  point  in  having  plenty  of  it.  Further, 
it  is  these  leafy  roughages,  clover  and  alfalfa,  that  contain  the 
vitamines, — substances  that  we  will  probably  pay  more  attention 
to  in  making  rations  as  soon  as  we  know  more  about  them. 

As  between  clover  and  alfalfa,  the  latter  is  more  difficult  to 
grow  but  means  cheaper  feed  per  acre  once  a  stand  is  obtained. 
Of  course  not  all  land  will  grow  these  crops.   They  require  a  limed 

9 


10 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


soil,  well  drained.  Because  of  the  great  value  of  legume  hay  every 
dairyman  should  try  to  keep  a  part  of  his  farm  in  such  a  state 
that  one  of  these  crops  can  be  grown,  and  we  believe  that  the 
extra  trouble  taken  to  grow  alfalfa  will  be  more  than  repaid  by 
the  yield.    (Chapter  XXIV) 

20.    Corn  silage. — The  big  value  of  silage  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it  is  the  cheapest  source  of  succulence.    The  importance  of  suc- 


Four  of  a  Kind 
Guernsey  cows  owned  by  Oaks  Farm,  Cohasset,  Mass. 


culent  feed  in  keeping  the  cow  in  good  condition  and  in  increasing 
her  milk  flow  is  known  to  all.  Everybody  knows  how  cows  respond 
in  increased  milk  flow  when  turned  out  on  pasture.  The  feeding 
of  silage  is  the  best  method  we  have  of  supplying  the  succulence 
of  pasture  in  the  winter  time. 

21.  Selecting  the  grain  mixture. — The  proper  selection  of 
the  grain  mixture  is  a  case  of  buying  what  mill  feeds  are  necessary 
to  go  with  the  home-grown  feeds  to  give  a  satisfactory  ration  at 


FEEDING   THROUGH   LACTATION   PERIOD         11 

the  cheapest  cost.  Thus,  the  farmer  should  think  first  of  the  kind 
and  amount  of  roughage  and  home-grown  grains  he  has  and  then 
decide  what  feeds  he  should  buy  to  go  with  them.  Here  he  has  the 
choice  of  purchasing  certain  separate  feeds  and  mixing  his  own 
ration  or  of  choosing  among  the  various  proprietary  feeds  one  that 
will  go  best  with  the  materials  he  has  at  home.  We  will  first  con- 
sider grain  mixtures  from  the  point  of  view  that  the  dairyman 
will  mix  his  own. 

22.  Variety. — The  mixture  should  have  variety.  No  one 
would  think  of  making  the  grain  mixture  entirely  of  one  feed. 
There  should  be  at  least  three  ingredients  so  selected  that  in  the 
entire  ration,  including  the  roughage,  at  least  four  plants  are 
represented.  A  mixture  of  corn  meal,  gluten  and  hominy  would 
not  do  because  all  of  these  feeds  come  from  the  same  plant. 

23.  Palatability. — Of  course  the  mixture  must  consist  of  feeds 
the  animal  likes, — it  must  be  palatable.  More  feed  will  be  eaten 
where  it  is  pleasing  to  the  taste.  Nice  sweet  hay  will  be  consumed 
liberally,  where  moldy,  improperly  cured  hay  will  be  refused 
entirely.  There  is  a  considerable  difference  in  palatability  among 
the  feeds  that  can  be  used  in  the  grain  ration  and  the  animal  will 
eat  more  if  its  ration  is  palatable.  Also  a  palatable  ration  is  more 
digestible. 

24.  Bulk. — The  mixture  should  have  bulk.  We  class  wheat 
bran,  ground  oats,  distillers'  grains,  etc.,  as  bulky  feeds,  in  con- 
trast to  corn  meal,  the  oil  meals,  etc.  Feed  lacking  bulk  forms  a 
compact  mass  in  the  stomach  which  is  digested  more  slowly  and 
with  difficulty.  Every  mixture  should  be  made  up  in  part  of 
bulky  materials. 

It  is  a  good  thing  to  have  at  least  one  laxative  feed  in  the  grain 
ration.  This  is  very  important  when  no  succulence  is  fed.  Wheat 
bran  and  oil  meal  are  laxative  feeds. 

25.  Protein. — The  protein  content  of  the  grain  mixture  is  of 
greatest  importance.  The  cow  cannot  produce  the  milk  she  is 
capable  of  unless  she  gets  enough  protein.  Farm  surveys  in  New 
York  State  have  shown  that  the  average  farmer  does  not  feed 
enough  protein  and  that  the  one  who  is  feeding  the  most  is  the  one 


12  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

who  is  making  money.  The  farmer  cannot  raise  the  kino!  of  feeds 
which  will  give  him  enough  protein,  so  buying  feeds  is  largely  a 
case  of  buying  this  nutrient.  The  selection  of  feeds  to  go  with  his 
home-grown  materials  so  as  to  get  enough  protein  into  his  mixture 
as  cheaply  as  possible  is  thus  the  thing  he  should  think  of  most.  In 
discussing  the  choosing  of  mixtures  according  to  the  roughage  we 
will  show  what  the  protein  content  ought  to  be,  and  give  a  list  of 
feeds  classified  according  to  the  amount  of  protein  they  furnish.  (27) 

26.  Digestibility. — Of  course,  the  ration  must  be  made  up  of 
digestible  materials.  The  cow  gets  no  value  out  of  her  feed  if  she 
cannot  digest  it.  We  will  not  attempt  here  to  classify  feeds  accord- 
ing to  their  digestibility,  but  the  reader  may  consider  that  all  the 
feeds  and  rations  we  list  in  this  chapter  are  satisfactory  as  regards 
this  point.    (Appendix,  table  I) 

27.  Cost. — All  through  our  discussion  we  have  mentioned  the 
matter  of  cost.  This  is  the  most  important  part  of  all  to  the 
majority  of  farmers.  If  a  man  has  the  right  kind  of  cows  he  can 
afford  to  give  them  all  they  can  eat  of  the  best  feeds.  Even  so,  he 
will  save  much  on  his  feed  bill  by  noting  the  relative  cost  of  these 
best  feeds,  for  at  all  times  some  are  relatively  cheap  and  others 
high.  The  true  cost  of  a  feed  can  only  be  measured  by  the  milk  it 
puts  in  the  pail.  Cheap  feeds  which  are  so  low  in  protein,  so  high 
in  fiber  and  so  indigestible  that  the  cow  gets  little  out  of  them  to 
make  milk  are  the  most  expensive  of  all. 

With  the  above  things  in  mind  we  are  now  ready  to  select 
specific  grain  mixtures  to  go  with  the  home-grown  feeds.  For  this 
purpose  we  will  use  the  following  list  in  which  the  common  feeds 
are  given  according  to  their  protein  content. 

High-Protein  Feeds  Medium-Protein  Feeds 

(23  per  cent  or  more)  (12  per  cent  to  23  per  cent) 

Linseed  oil  meal  Wheat  bran 

Cottonseed  meal  Cocoanut  oil  meal 

Distillers'  dried  grains  Standard  wheat  middlings 

Gluten  meal  Wheat  mixed  feed 

Gluten  feed  Germ  oil  meal 

Buckwheat  middlings  Barley  feed 


FEEDING   THROUGH   LACTATION   PERIOD         13 

Low-Protein  Feeds 

(below  12  per  cent) 
Corn  meal 
Hominy  feed 
Ground  oats 
Ground  barley 
Corn  feed  meal 
Ground  buckwheat 
Ground  rye 
28.   Mixtures  with  clover  or  alfalfa  hay.— Where  the  farmer 
has  an  abundance  of  one  of  these  roughages  and  plenty  of  silage 
he  is  in  a  position  to  buy  the  minimum  amount  of  the  more  costly 
high-protein  feeds.    His  grain  mixture  should  contain  14  to  18 
per  cent  of  protein.   A  simple  mixture  which  would  supply  a  little 
over  14  per  cent  of  protein  and  require  the  purchase  of  only  one 
pound  in  ten  of  high-protein  feed  is  as  follows : 

100  lbs.  wheat  bran  200  lbs.  hominy 

150  lbs.  ground  oats  50  lbs.  oil  meal 

The  first  two  feeds  are  bulky.  Bran  and  oil  meal  are  laxative.  A 
variety  of  plants  is  represented.  The  farmer  could  substitute  for 
ground  oats  and  hominy  any  of  the  other  low-protein  feeds  if  they 
could  be  bought  more  cheaply  or  if  he  had  them  from  his  own  farm. 
Cottonseed  meal  might  be  substituted  for  oil  meal  but  we  like  to 
have  a  little  of  the  latter  in  every  dairy  ration.  The  protein  con- 
tent could  be  increased  by  substituting  a  small  amount  of  a 
medium-  or  high-protein  feed  in  place  of  a  part  of  the  oats  or 
hominy. 

Another  ration  which  would  go  well  with  legume  roughage, 
giving  a  somewhat  greater  variety  of  feeds  and  furnishing  about 
16  per  cent  protein  is  as  follows: 

200  lbs.  ground  oats 
100  lbs.  corn  feed  meal 
100  lbs.  ground  barley 
100  lbs.  buckwheat  middlings 
100  lbs.  gluten  feed 
50  lbs.  oil  meal 


14 


BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 


29.  Mixture  with  timothy  hay.— When  timothy  hay  or  other 
poor  hay  is  fed  with  silage  the  grain  mixture  must  contain  nearly 
one-half  again  as  much  protein  as  with  alfalfa  and  the  actual 
protein  content  of  the  ration  must  be  22  to  25  per  cent.  A  mixture 
which  would  be  satisfactory  for  use  with  timothy  hay  is  as  follows : 

100  lbs.  wheat  bran 

100  lbs.  hominy 

150  lbs.  gluten  feed 

100  lbs.  oil  meal 
50  lbs.  cottonseed  meal 
This  mixture  contains  about  24  per  cent  of  protein.    In  order  to 
furnish  this  amount,  60  per  cent  of  the  ration  must  come  from 
high-protein  feeds,  showing  that  two  to  three  times  as  much  of 
these  feeds  are  required  as  when  the  farmer  has  alfalfa  or  clover. 


Spring  Brook  Bess  Burke  2d  131387 

One  of  the  largest  Holstein-Friesian  cows  in  the  world.  Weight  2225 
pounds.  Yearly  record  24918.1  pounds  of  milk,  1032.75  pounds  butter  fat. 
Owned  by  Winterthur  Farms,  Wilmington,  Delaware. 


FEEDING   THROUGH   LACTATION   PERIOD         15 

30.  Mixtures  with  hay  containing  some  clover.— Probably 
the  majority  of  farmers  have  mixed  hay  to  feed  their  cows, — hay 
made  up  of  timothy  and  other  grasses,  and  containing  some  clover. 
Here  the  farmer  must  make  his  mixture  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  hay.  If  it  contains  little  clover  he  must  use  a  mixture  similar 
to  that  suggested  for  timothy.  On  the  other  hand  with  considerable' 
clover  present  he  can  lower  the  protein  content  of  his  grain  mix- 
ture accordingly. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  no  harm  can  come  from  feeding 
more  protein  than  necessary.  The  first  ration  we  listed  (28)  con- 
tains the  absolute  minimum  of  protein  and  is  for  use  with  the 
best  roughage  and  is  only  recommended  where  the  high-protein 
feeds  are  much  more  costly  than  the  others.  We  prefer  a  some- 
what higher  protein  content  than  14  per  cent  even  with  the  best 
roughage,  where  it  can  be  obtained  without  too  much  extra  cost. 
It  is  better  to  err  on  the  side  of  feeding  more  protein  than  necessary 
even  if  it  does  cost  more,  than  to  feed  too  little.  Of  course,  if  the 
dairyman  has  lots  of  legume  hay  and  silage  and  home-grown  grain 
it  might  be  more  economical  for  him  to  make  his  ration  entirely 
from  these  feeds  rather  than  buy  feeds  to  get  more  protein,  even 
though  maximum  milk  production  may  not  be  realized.  Decision 
here  must  rest  on  the  cost  of  the  feed  to  be  bought  and  selling 
price  of  home-grown  feed. 

31.  A  ration  of  alfalfa  and  silage  alone.— Professor  W.  J. 
Fraser  of  the  University  of  Illinois  has  just  published  a  very 
interesting  report  of  a  six-year  experiment  during  which  a  herd  of 
dairy  cows  received  nothing  but  home-grown  feeds.  The  cows 
were  fed  almost  entirely  on  alfalfa  hay  and  corn  silage,  the  average 
daily  consumption  per  cow  being  14.5  pounds  of  alfalfa  and  37 
pounds  of  silage.  When  a  cow  was  producing  over  20  pounds  of 
milk  daily  she  received  some  corn  meal — two  to  twelve  pounds 
daily,  depending  upon  her  production.  The  herd  was  on  pasture 
in  season.  With  this  system  of  feeding,  using  no  grain  except 
corn  meal  and  little  of  that,  the  average  yearly  production  per 
cow  over  the  six  years  was  7,470  pounds  of  milk  and  262  pounds 
of  fat.    The  yearly  production  per  acre  of  feed  was  3,888  pounds 


16  BETTER  DAIRY  FARMING 

of  milk  and  136  pounds  of  fat.  This  experiment  brings  out  in  a 
very  remarkable  way,  what  a  fine  combination  is  alfalfa  hay  and 
corn  silage,  and  that  a  fair  yield  of  milk  is  possible  on  these  feeds 
alone.  Certainly  they  must  have  kept  the  cows  in  good  condition 
or  production  would  not  have  been  maintained  over  six  years. 
The  reader  will  do  well  to  ask  himself  whether  his  cows  are  averag- 
ing over  7,000  pounds  yearly. 

32.  Minerals. — No  mineral  supplements  have  been  added  to 
any  of  the  grain  mixtures  given.  We  recommend  the  addition  of 
one  to  two  per  cent  of  pure  ground  limestone,  ground  rock  phos- 
phate or  steamed  bone  meal  where  little  legume  roughage  is  fed. 
Any  material  added  should  be  ground  fine  enough  to  pass  a  twenty- 
mesh  sieve.  It  may  be  worth  while  to  add  one  of  these  sources 
even  where  legume  roughage  is  used.  Certainly  this  will  be  true 
as  soon  as  we  know  how  to  cure  the  roughage  so  as  to  preserve 
the  factor  that  aids  in  lime  assimilation.  (13)  A  year's  develop- 
ments may  change  our  present  ideas  and  recommendations.  In 
the  meantime,  we  are  inclined  to  advocate  the  use  of  minerals  as 
insurance  even  where  their  value  is  not  proved.  They  are  cheap 
and  can  do  no  harm  and  we  may  learn  a  lot  from  the  experience 
of  farmers  using  them. 

There  are  a  number  of  proprietary  mineral  mixtures  on  the 
market.  These  mixtures  have  no  merit  whatever  over  unmixed 
ingredients  which  supply  the  needed  minerals, — lime  and  phos- 
phorus. The  proprietary  mixtures  contain  a  number  of  ingre- 
dients of  no  proven  value  which  add  nothing  but  cost  to  the  ration. 
We  advise  against  their  use. 

33.  Salt. — The  cow  should  receive  one  to  two  ounces  of  salt  a 
day.  Two  or  three  ounces  can  be  fed  three  times  a  week  if  more 
convenient,  simply  throwing  it  into  the  manger  any  time  during 
the  day.  Of  course,  the  salt  can  also  be  mixed  with  the  grain 
ration.  The  practice  of  salting  the  animals  once  in  two  weeks  is 
not  a  good  one. 

34.  Feeding  without  silage. — In  talking  about  feeding  thus 
far  we  have  assumed  that  the  farmer  has  silage.  Of  course  we 
know  that  many  farmers  do  not  have  silos  and  that  even  those  who 


FEEDING   THROUGH  LACTATION   PERIOD        17 

do,  have  only  a  limited  amount  of  silage  in  certain  years.  We 
believe  it  will  pay  every  dairyman  to  grow  some  silage  crop  and 
that  it  should  be  corn  if  possible.  If  experience  has  shown  him  that 
he  cannot  depend  on  corn,  there  may  be  some  other  silage  crop 
suited  to  his  locality.  If  the  farmer  has  no  silage,  he  should  try 
to  provide  some  other  succulence  for  his  cows.  Roots  are  the 
best  substitute.  They  do  not  furnish  an  equivalent  amount  of 
food  value  as  cheaply  as  does  corn  silage.  Otherwise  they  may 
be  just  as  satisfactory.  Mangels,  sugar  beets  and  rutabagas  are 
the  roots  most  commonly  used.  They  should  be  sliced  up  and  fed 
with  the  grain.  Where  roots  are  fed  the  grain  may  be  reduced 
somewhat. 

35.  Other  succulence. — Another  way  to  provide  succulence 
is  by  the  use  of  dried  beet  pulp  soaked  in  water  before  feeding. 
Take  one  pound  of  beet  pulp  in  place  of  about  eight  pounds  of 
silage  and  soak  it  in  water  ten  to  twelve  hours.  The  grain  ration 
need  not  be  quite  as  heavy  where  beet  pulp  is  fed.  However,  it  is 
the  most  costly  way  of  getting  succulence. 

Without  succulent  feed  of  any  kind  the  grain  feeding  must  be. 
somewhat  more  liberal  than  otherwise,  and  the  mixture  should 
contain  more  of  the  laxative  feeds. 

36.  How  much  to  feed. — In  determining  this  point  we  first 
decide  on  the  amount  of  grain  needed  on  the  basis  of  the  milk 
produced  and  then  give  the  cow  all  the  hay  and  silage  she  will 
clean  up  in  addition.  In  deciding  on  the  grain  for  a  given  amount 
of  milk  we  think  of  three  things, — the  kind  of  roughage  available, 
the  price  of  milk  and  the  fat  content  of  the  milk  produced.  With 
the  best  quality  hay  and  silage  or  roots,  feed  one  pound  of  grain 
for  every  four  pounds  of  milk,  where  the  price  of  the  product  is 
low.  If  the  price  is  high,  the  extra  milk  produced  by  heavier  feed- 
ing, one  pound  of  grain  to  three  of  milk,  will  justify  the  cost. 
Where  ordinary  feeding  hay  is  the  roughage,  feed  one  pound  of 
grain  for  every  two  and  one-half  or  three  pounds  of  milk,  depend- 
ing on  its  price.  The  above  figures  are  for  3.5  per  cent  milk;  for 
producing  richer  milk  the  grain  allowance  should  be  increased 
somewhat.    Under  conditions  where  one  pound  for  three  pounds 


18 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


of  milk  would  be  fed  to  Holsteins,  Jerseys  or  Guernseys  should 
have  one  pound  for  every  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  milk. 

Another  way  of  determining  the  amount  of  grain  to  feed  is  to 
measure  it  by  the  butter  fat  production  per  week.  Feed  one  pound 
of  grain  per  day  for  each  pound  of  butter  fat  produced  per  week 


A  Good  Dairy  Barx  axd  a  Leadixg  Dairy  Man 

Mr.  Frank  O.  Lowden,  Oregon,  111.,  President  of  the  Holstein-Friesian 
Association  of  America. 

and  let  the  cow  get  the  rest  of  her  feed  from  a  liberal  amount  of 
good  roughage. 

In  addition  to  the  grain  mixture  the  average  cow  will  eat  9  to 
12  pounds  of  hay  and  30  to  40  pounds  of  silage  per  day,  depending 
on  her  size  and   production. 

37.  Feed  the  cows  as  individuals. — In  feeding  grain  as  we 
have  suggested,  the  farmer  must  of  course  feed  each  animal  as  an 
individual.  This  is  the  only  proper  way.  If  each  animal  in  the 
herd  gets  the  same  amount  of  grain  no  matter  how  much  milk  she 


FEEDING   THROUGH  LACTATION   PERIOD        19 

gives,  some  will  get  more  than  they  need  while  others  will  not  get 
enough  to  give  the  milk  which  they  are  capable  of  producing.  As 
the  cow  gets  along  toward  the  end  of  the  lactation  period  her  milk 
rapidly  falls  off  and  the  farmer  will  save  much  grain  here  by  feed- 
ing it  according  to  production.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  small 
blackboard  nailed  to  each  cow's  stanchion,  on  which  can  be 
written  the  amount  of  grain  the  cow  should  receive.  When  her 
milk  shows  that  the  amount  should  be  changed  it  is  very  easy  to 
change  the  figure  on  the  board. 

38.  Vitamines  in  the  dairy  ration.— Certain  other  sub- 
stances besides  protein,  carbohydrates,  fats  and  minerals  are 
necessary  for  health  and  growth.  These  substances  are  called  vita- 
mines.  Their  importance  has  been  principally  worked  out  in  the 
diet  of  humans,  but  we  do  know  that  our  farm  animals  may  suffer 
from  a  lack  of  them.  Further,  the  dairyman  must  be  interested  in 
vitamines  because  milk  is  the  most  important  source  of  vitamines 
in  the  human  diet.    This  fact  is  increasing  its  use  and  value. 

There  are  at  least  three  vitamines,  distinguished  on  the  basis 
of  the  effect  of  their  absence  from  the  food.  The  fat  soluble 
vitamine,  vitamine  A,  is  the  one  that  occurs  in  butter  fat.  In 
animal  feeds  it  occurs  in  green  forage  and  leafy  roughage.  Grains 
in  general  contain  little,  but  yellow  corn  contains  considerable 
amounts.  The  absence  of  the  vitamine  A  affects  growth  and  other 
body  functions  and  eventually  causes  a  specific  eye  disease. 

The  second  vitamine,  vitamine  B,  occurs  abundantly  in  milk, 
in  grains,  in  green  forage  and  in  roots.  Thus  it  occurs  liberally 
in  animal  feeds  and  is  not  likely  to  be  deficient  in  the  ration. 

The  absence  of  another  vitamine,  the  antiscorbutic  or  vitamine 
C,  results  in  scurvy  in  humans  and  certain  animals.  This  vita- 
mine occurs  liberally  in  leafy  foods  and  green  forage  and  to  a 
variable  extent  in  milk.  It  does  not  occur  in  grains  or  in  dry 
roughage.  Thus  it  does  not  occur  in  much  of  the  material  used  in 
feeding  farm  animals. 

Some  animals,  however,  are  not  susceptible  to  a  lack  of  vita- 
mine C,  and  so  far  as  we  know  at  present  its  importance  is  not 
great  in  the  case  of  dairy  animals. 


20  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

Most  scientists  believe  that  there  is  a  fourth  vitamine,  the  anti- 
rachitic,— a  vitamine  which  will  cure  rickets.  The  latter  is  a 
disease  due  to  improper  lime  and  phosphorus  nutrition.  The 
vitamine  does  not  supply  either  of  these  minerals  but  aids  in  their 
metabolism.  Cod  liver  oil  is  the  best  source  of  this  vitamine. 
Those  who  have  studied  the  question  believe  that  the  factor  in 
green  forage,  which  helps  the  dairy  cow  build  up  her  reserves  of 
lime  and  phosp'horus,  as  mentioned  in  paragraph  13,  is  identical 
with  the  antirachitic  vitamine.  Thus  the  dairyman  is  interested 
in  having.as  much  as  possible  of  this  vitamine  in  his  ration.  This 
means  good  pasture  in  the  summer  and,  in  the  winter,  leafy  rough- 
age, cured  so  as  to  preserve  its  leaves  and  bright  green  color.  To 
do  this,  curing  under  caps  is  essential. 

A  dairy  ration  which  is  based  on  good  pasture  in  summer  and 
plenty  of  grain  and  good  leafy  roughage  in  winter  will  supply 
vitamines  as  well  as  we  know  how  to  do  at  present. 

39.  Vitamines  in  the  milk. — Vitamines  A,  B  and  C  are  more 
important  in  the  case  of  growing  animals  than  for  milch  cows  and 
we  will  say  more  about  them  when  we  take  up  the  feeding  of 
calves  and  young  stock.  Lack  of  vitamines  in  the  dairy  ration 
affects  the  quality  of  the  milk  rather  than  its  quantity,  since  the 
vitamine  content  of  the  milk  is  governed  by  the  vitamine  content 
of  the  feed.  In  particular,  milk  produced  on  pasture  grass  is  three 
times  as  rich  in  C  as  that  produced  on  good  winter  rations. 

Of  course,  the  dairyman  is  not  primarily  interested  in  this 
difference  in  quality,  but  the  consumer  is,  particularly  where 
babies  are  concerned.  As  the  consumer  becomes  more  educated 
on  this  point  there  might  well  be  a  special  market  for  milk  from 
cows  so  fed  as  to  furnish  a  product  high  in  vitamines.  At  any  rate, 
the  dairyman  must  have  some  interest  in  the  vitamine  content 
of  his  milk  from  the  standpoint  of  his  own  children.  The  question 
may  well  be  important  also  where  calves  or  other  animals  are 
being  raised  on  milk  or  its  products. 

40.  Water,  light  and  air. — Cows  should  be  watered  at  least 
twice  a  day.  The  water  should  be  clean,  good-tasting  and  free 
from  ice.   It  should  not  be  so  cold  that  the  animal  will  stand  and 


FEEDING   THROUGH   LACTATION   PERIOD        21 

shiver  after  drinking.  A  system  which  keeps  fresh  water  before 
cows  constantly  is  perhaps  the  ideal,  but  any  system  by  which  the 
animal  gets  all  it  wants  at  least  twice  a  day  will  prove  satisfactory. 
A  large,  heavy-milking  cow  will  drink  8  to  15  gallons  a  day, 
depending  on  her  feed. 

The  cow  should  have  plenty  of  light  and  fresh  air.  It  is  not 
costly  to  provide  light  in  the  stable.  There  should  be  about  four 
square  feet  of  window  space  per  cow.  A  good  system  of  ventila- 
tion may  be  a  little  more  difficult,  where  not  provided  in  building, 
but  a  little  thought  on  the  matter  will  enable  the  farmer  to  better 
conditions  in  this  respect,  even  in  an  old  stable.  The  ideal  tem- 
perature for  the  stable  is  60°  F.  It  is  not  practical  to  maintain  this 
temperature  in  winter  in  the  northern  states  because  some  system 
of  heating  would  be  required,  but  the  stable  temperature  should 
not  go  below  45°  F. 

The  animals  should  not  be  stanchioned  all  the  time.  They 
need  exercise.  They  should  be  turned  out  in  the  yard  for  a  time 
every  day  that  it  is  not  storming.  It  is  fine  to  have  a  covered  yard 
or  shed  in  which  they  can  run  loose  in  bad  weather.  Some  dairy- 
men allow  the  cows  to  run  loose  in  a  large  barn  or  covered  yard 
all  the  time  except  at  milking.  This  is  a  good  idea  where  the  yard 
or  barn  is  warm  and  clean.    (262,  263) 

41.  Kindness  and  regularity.— Every  animal  must  be  treated 
with  kindness.  A  club  or  whip  has  no  place  in  the  dairy  barn,  nor 
has  a  dog  any  place  in  connection  with  the  herd.  The  dairy  cow 
has  a  nervous  disposition  and  anything  that  upsets  her  affects  her 
milk  flow.    Gentle,  thoughtful  treatment  means  more  milk. 

Regularity  in  time  and  manner  of  feeding  is  important.  The 
cow  gets  used  to  receiving  a  certain  feed  at  a  certain  time  and  any 
variation  here  upsets  her.  It  is  good  practice  to  feed  the  grain 
just  before  milking  and  the  silage  or  other  succulent  feed  imme- 
diately after  milking.  In  so  doing  any  possibility  of  the  milk 
absorbing  the  odor  of  the  silage  is  disposed  of.  The  hay  should 
be  fed  after  the  silage.  In  winter,  when  the  cows  are  in  the  barn 
all  day  it  may  be  worth  while  to  omit  the  feeding  of  hay  in  the 
morning  and  give  it  at  noon,  if  not  too  inconvenient. 


22  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

42.  Milking  more  than  two  times  a  day. — Most  farmers 
milk  their  cows  twice  a  day.  Where  the  dairyman  has  a  con- 
siderable number  of  high  producers  it  will  pay  him  to  milk  three 
times  a  day.  The  extra  milk  will  give  him  a  good  return  for  the 
additional  labor.  The  milkings  should  be  eight  hours  apart,  but 
the  actual  times  of  milking  can  be  arranged  to  suit  the  farmer's 
other  work.  On  many  farms  the  hours  are  5  a.  m.,  1  p.  m.  and 
9  p.m.  Changing  from  two-  to  three-times-a-day  milking  will  not 
bring  any  extra  milk  where  the  third  is  simply  put  in  between  the 
other  two  without  lengthening  the  interval.  The  farmer  who  is 
milking  at  5  a.  m.  and  5  p.  m.  will  gain  little  by  milking  at  noon, 
unless  he  postpones  his  night  milking  three  or  four  hours.  Where 
the  cow  is  milked  three  times  a  day  she  should  also  receive  grain 
three  times  a  day.  The  other  feed  can  be  fed  twice  as  usual.  (218) 


CHAPTER   III 
FEEDING   ON   PASTURE 

For  many  farmers  the  pasture  season  is  the  time  of  greatest 
milk  production.  The  cows  are  bred  to  freshen  in  the  spring  so 
that  the  period  of  largest  milk  flow  will  coincide  with  the  spring 
and  summer  months.  This  system  is  called  summer  dairying.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  cows  managed  for  maximum  production  in 
the  winter  are  well  along  in  their  lactation  period  at  the  time  of 
going  on  pasture  and  may  be  dry  toward  the  end  of  the  summer. 
Whether  the  cow  is  at  the  height  or  at  the  end  of  her  lactation  on 
pasture  the  principles  of  feeding  involved  are  the  same. 

43.  Turning  to  pasture. — The  thing  of  first  importance  is  to 
have  as  good  pasture  as  possible.  Every  farmer  can  better  his 
pasture  by  paying  a  little  more  attention  to  proper  fertilization, 
reseeding  and  to  keeping  down  brush  and  weeds.  Detailed  sug- 
gestions for  the  improvement  of  old  pastures  are  given  in  Chapter 
XXV.  Pasturing  as  heavily  as  the  land  will  stand  is  the  best 
way  to  control  the  brush  and  weeds,  but  of  course  overgrazing 
must  be  avoided.  Each  animal  requires  one  and  one-half  to 
two  and  one-half  acres.  Some  shady  places  where  the  animals 
can  go  in  the  heat  of  the  day  help  a  lot.  There  should  be 
plenty  of  good  water  and  the  animals  should  not  have  to  go  too 
far  to  get  it. 

The  change  from  the  winter  ration  to  pasture  feeding  should  be 
a  gradual  one.  The  feed  obtained  from  pasture  will  be  more  laxa- 
tive and  will  contain  less  nutriment  in  a  given  amount  because  of 
the  large  amount  of  water.  Thus,  the  cow  should  be  allowed  to 
adjust  her  system  gradually  to  the  change  of  feed.  On  turning 
the  cows  out  the  roughage  of  winter  feeding  can  be  cut  down 
rapidly  but  the  grain  should  be  decreased  more  slowly  and  several 
days  elapse  before  it  is  discontinued  entirely. 

44.  Importance  of  additional  feed. — The  next  thing  is  to 
give  the  cows  some  extra  feed  as  soon  as  the  pasture  commences  to 

23 


24  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

fail.  In  fact  there  are  many  who  think  that  heavy  producing 
cows  should  have  some  grain  even  when  the  pasture  is  at  its  best. 

It  is  our  belief  that  the  biggest  return  the  farmer  will  get  for 
time  and  money  spent  in  connection  with  his  herd  is  that  from 
giving  his  cows  a  little  extra  feed  and  care  as  the  hot  weather 
comes  on  and  the  pastures  become  poor.  Along  in  July  and  August 
the  pasture  fails,  the  flies  become  troublesome,  there  may  be  a  lack 
of  shade  or  insufficient  water  near  at  hand,  and  it  is  no  wonder 
that  they  cannot  keep  up  their  milk  flow. 

The  cow  which  falls  off  in  milk  does  not  easily  come  back.  Thus, 
underfeeding  her  on  pasture  means  less  milk  not  only  then  but 
for  the  rest  of  the  lactation  period.  She  may  dry  off  a  month  or 
two  earlier  than  she  would  have  with  a  little  more  feed.  Further, 
starving  her  at  this  time  means  less  milk  in  the  next  lactation 

so.    A  little  extra  feed  means  more  milk  at  the  time,  more  milk 


*  :     «pr  the  rest  of  the  lactation  period,  a  stronger  calf  and  better 
*jj  55fondition  for  the  next  lactation  period. 

S3  Cj    45>    Grain  on  pasture. — It  is  a  good  rule  to  remember  that 

^after  July  1,  the  cow  on  pasture  should  have  some  extra  feed. 

C   ,g This  feed  should  consist  of  grain,  and  hay  and  silage  or  green 

-•  crops.    The  grain  mixture  should  have  30  to  50  per  cent  of  high- 

5  ^  protein  feeds  depending  on  the  quality  of  the  pasture  and  the 

*  ^*    kind  of  other  feed.     The  following  mixture  will  give  excellent 

'  -J    results  under  most  conditions: 

300  lbs.  wheat  bran 
300  lbs.  hominy 
200  lbs.  gluten  feed 
100  lbs.  oil  meal 
Where  the  pasture  is  very  poor  and  good  roughage  is  not  to  be  had, 
a  mixture  which  contains  more  protein  should  be  used.    The- fol- 
lowing is  suggested: 

100  lbs.  ground  oats 

100  lbs.  corn  meal 

100  lbs.  wheat  mixed  feed  or  bran 

200  lbs.  gluten  feed 

100  lbs.  cottonseed  meal 


FEEDING   ON   PASTURE  25 

46.  Minerals  on  pasture. — Here  again  the  question  of 
minerals  comes  up.  It  has  been  previously  mentioned  that  proper 
mineral  nutrition  is  not  simply  a  case  of  adequate  amounts  in 
the  feed,  but  that  the  maximum  utilization  of  the  minerals  in  the 
feed  only  comes  through  the  presence  of  a  factor  which  aids  in 
their  assimilation.  Pasture  grass  contains  this  factor  in  large 
amounts.  Thus,  when  the  animals  are  on  pasture  it  is  perhaps 
the  best  time  of  all  to  add  extra  lime  and  phosphorus  to  the  ration, 
to  take  advantage  of  the  conditions  which  make  for  maximum 
assimilation.  It  is  of  equal  importance  whether  the  cow  is  dry  or 
in  full  flow  of  milk,  for  any  assimilated  minerals  not  needed  for 
milk  secretion  will  be  stored  up  in  the  bones  for  the  next  lactation. 
We  suggest  one  to  two  per  cent  of  pure,  finely  ground  limestone, 
ground  rock  phosphate  or  steamed  bone  meal.  (13,  32,  38) 

47.  Silage  and  green  crops  for  soilage.— It  is  not  economical 
to  supplement  the  pasture  with  grain  alone.  The  cow  should  get 
some  succulent  feed  and  perhaps  some  hay  also.  Silage  has  a  large 
place  in  summer  feeding.  No  other  feed  will  so  cheaply  supply  the 
failing  succulence  of  pasture.  Many  dairymen  have  a  small  silo 
that  they  use  for  summer  feeding.  With  a  silo  of  smaller  diameter, 
a  deeper  layer  can  be  fed  off  each  day  and  thus  offset  the  greater 
tendency  to  spoil  in  hot  weather. 

Where  a  farmer  is  practicing  summer  dairying  and  has  only  a 
limited  amount  of  silage,  he  had  better  save  it  to  supplement 
pasture  rather  than  feed  it  all  up  during  the  winter.  Even  if  the 
silo  has  been  opened  for  winter  feeding  it  can  be  sealed  up  to  save 
some  for  summer  feeding. 

A  substitute  for  silage  is  a  succession  of  green  or  soiling  crops. 
A  properly  planned  succession  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  palat- 
able feed  from  July  1  to  November  1 — the  time  when  the  pastures 
need  supplementing.  The  feeding  of  green  crops  during  the 
summer  adds  variety  to  the  ration  by  giving  the  cow  a  change 
from  the  silage  of  winter  feeding.  However,  a  successful  system 
of  soilage  requires  careful  planning  and  means  considerable  work 
at  a  time  when  the  farmer  is  busiest  with  his  other  crops.  Among 
the  crops  usually  grown  for  soilage  are:    peas  and  oats,  soybeans, 


26  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

cow  peas,  corn,  alfalfa,  various  clovers  and  the  smaller  grasses. 
(385,  386) 

We  certainly  believe  that  the  dairyman  should  do  his  best  to 
grow  enough  corn  for  silage  so  he  will  have  some  silage  for  summer 
feeding.  It  is,  in  general,  his  cheapest  succulence,  yield  per  acre 
and  labor  involved  considered.  Without  silage  he  should  try  to 
grow  some  green  crops.  Perhaps  if  he  has  some  silage  he  can  com- 
bine the  two. 

It  is  more  important  that  the  cow  receive  succulent  feed  than 
that  she  get  hay,  but  the  latter  can  be  fed  also  to  advantage. 
The  less  succulence  available  the  more  hay  should  be  fed.  If 
none  is  available,  hay  must  be  depended  upon.  Clover  or  alfalfa 
is  better  than  other  hay  for  reasons  wTe  have  previously  stated. 

48.  The  additional  feed  needed. — Remember  that  the  cow 
in  milk  uses  from  40  to  60  per  cent  of  her  ration  for  maintenance, — 
that  is  for  carrying  on  her  body  processes.  The  remainder  goes 
into  milk.  If,  due  to  poor  pasture  and  no  supplemental  feed,  the 
cow  gets  only  about  half  the  feed  she  ought  to  have,  this  feed  will 
be  used  mostly  for  maintenance  and  her  milk  production  will 
nearly  if  not  entirely  stop. 

The  amount  of  other  feed  needed  will  depend  on  the  condition 
of  the  pasture  and  the  milk  flow  of  the  cow.  Where  the  pasture 
is  still  good,  feed  one  pound  of  grain  for  every  six  or  eight  pounds 
of  milk.  Feed  about  five  times  as  much  silage  or  green  crops  as 
grain  where  no  hay  is  fed.  Hay  can  replace  a  part  of  this  succulence 
at  the  rate  of  one  of  hay  to  five  of  succulence.  Thus,  if  all  hay 
must  be  fed  it  should  about  equal  the  grain.  As  the  pasture  gets 
poorer,  the  amount  of  feed  must  be  increased. 

49.  Dry  cows  need  additional  feed. — In  specifying  that 
there  should  be  a  certain  amount  of  supplementary  feed  per  unit 
of  milk  produced  we  do  not  mean  that  the  dry  cow  should  have 
none.  On  good  pasture  the  dry  cow  needs  no  extra  feed  but  as  the 
pasture  fails  she  must  have  an  adequate  amount  to  fatten  her  up 
and  put  her  in  good  condition  for  calving,  and  for  the  next  lacta- 
tion period.  On  very  poor  pasture  the  dry  cow  wTill  need  three  to 
five  pounds  of  grain  a  day  and  silage  or  hay  in  proportion. 


FEEDING   ON   PASTURE 


27 


50.  Flies. — Flies  bother  the  animals  a  lot  in  summer.  During 
the  fly  season  spraying  with  a  good  fly  repellant  means  comfort 
for  the  cow  and  she  will  stand  quieter  at  milking  time.  It  also 
seems  reasonable  to  think  that  a  cow  that  is  not  constantly 
annoyed  by  flies  will  produce  more  milk.  It  is  convenient  to  spray 
the  cows  twice  a  day, — after  milking  in  the  morning  and  when 
they  come  in  the  barn  in  the  afternoon. 


Jersey  Cows  in  Good  Pasture 


There  are  many  fly  sprays  on  the  market.  None  of  them  keep 
the  flies  off  as  long  as  we  would  like,  but  after  the  use  of  a  good 
one  the  flies  should  not  return  for  two  to  four  hours.  House  flies 
may  come  back  sooner,  but  they  do  not  bother  the  animals  much. 
It  is  the  blood-sucking  flies  that  one  should  look  for.  Some  farmers 
are  afraid  that  the  spray  will  taint  the  milk.  We  have  tried  several 
and  believe  there  is  little  danger,  provided  open  pails  or  cans 
containing  milk  are  not  in  the  barn  during  the  spraying,  and  pro- 


28  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

vided  the  spraying  is  done  at  least  an  hour  before  milking.  Spray 
thoroughly  but  lightly,  avoiding  the  head,  bag,  and  between  the 
legs.  Not  much  danger  need  be  feared  of  the  spray  burning  the 
hide  unless  spilled  on. 

51.  Winter  vs.  summer  dairying.— It  has  been  clearly 
shown  that,  where  a  man  has  easy  access  to  a  year-round  market 
for  his  milk,  winter  dairying  is  in  general  the  more  profitable. 
With  proper  feeding  and  management,  fall-calving  cows  produce 
the  largest  annual  yield.  The  flow  is  large  during  the  winter, 
while  in  the  spring,  the  time  when  the  yield  is  falling  rapidly  due 
to  advancing  lactation,  the  flow  is  stimulated  by  turning  the 
animals  on  pasture.  On  the  other  hand,  with  cows  freshening  in 
the  spring,  the  heat  and  flies  and  poor  pasture  of  mid-summer  are 
apt  to  cause  a  marked  shrinkage  in  the  flow  despite  supple- 
mentary feed.  Neither  will  heavy  feeding,  after  the  cows  are 
brought  in  for  the  winter,  bring  the  flow  back.  Thus  in  summer 
milk  production  there  is  apt  to  be  an  abnormal  shrinkage  in  the 
flow  toward  the  end  of  the  lactation,  instead  of  the  stimulus  to 
sustained  flow  caused  by  the  turning  out  on  pasture  at  a  corre- 
sponding period  in  the  lactation  in  winter  dairying.  In  the  latter, 
also,  the  maximum  flow  corresponds  with  the  period  of  highest 
price.  Thus,  fall  freshening  means  both  more  milk  and  a  better 
price  for  it.  There  are  many  other  advantages  of  fall  freshening. 
The  young  calves  can  be  raised  with  less  trouble  in  the  winter 
than  in  the  hot  summer  months.  Fall  calves  can  be  raised  more 
cheaply  because  they  can  be  pastured  the  first  summer.  Summer 
dairying  means  maximum  production  when  the  farmer  is  busiest 
with  his  crops. 

52.  Winter  dairying  increases  yield. — It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  increased  yield  under  winter  dairying  will  only  be 
realized  if  the  cows  are  fed  so  as  to  produce  all  the  milk  of  which 
they  are  capable  during  the  winter  months.  They  must  have 
plenty  of  good  roughage  and  a  grain  mixture  of  the  proper  protein 
content  in  accordance  with  their  production. 

For  the  dairyman  who  sells  his  product  to  the  cheese  factory 
and  who  has  no  market  after  the  factory  closes,  summer  dairying 


FEEDING   ON   PASTURE  29 

is  by  far  the  most  profitable.  He  will  find  it  desirable  to  get  his 
cows  over  the  winter  as  cheaply  as  possible  without  regard  to 
keeping  up  the  milk  flow.  He  can  use  a  wide  ration  but  he  must 
feed  enough  to  keep  the  cows  in  good  condition  and  the  ration 
must  be  of  good  quality.  Otherwise,  the  cows  will  not  be  in  a 
proper  condition  for  calving  and  will  not  have  stored  the  necessary 
reserves  for  a  normal  production  the  next  summer.  (12,  13,  14) 
The  farmer  who  has  a  year-round  market  but  who  does  not 
have  ready  access  to  it  during  the  winter  months  because  of  dis- 
tance and  poor  roads  may  find  summer  dairying  more  suitable. 
Many  farms  are  not  productive  enough  to  raise  the  required 
amount  of  good  roughage  for  the  heavy  feeding  required  in  winter 
dairying,  but  they  provide  excellent  pasture  for  maximum  pro- 
duction in  summer.  In  view  of  the  several  factors  involved  it  is 
believed  that  many  dairymen  would  profit  by  giving  a  little 
thought  to  the  question  as  to  whether  they  are  practicing  the 
kind  of  dairying  best  suited  to  their  conditions. 


CHAPTER   IV 

FEEDING  CALVES 

We"  cannot  have  good  dairy  cows  unless  we  have  well  raised 
calves.  No  farmer  can  succeed  in  breeding  up  his  herd  unless  he 
knows  how  to  raise  his  calves  properly  and  takes  the  time  to  do  it. 
Their  proper  feeding  and  management  is  just  as  important  as  that 
of  older  animals. 

53.  Grow  the  calves  well. — One  frequently  hears  the  state- 
ment from  the  dairyman  that  he  cannot  afford  to  raise  his  calves 
any  better  because  it  is  so  expensive.  It  does  cost  money  to  raise 
a  calf  properly  and  many  are  not  worth  it,  but  the  point  is  that  if 
the  calf  is  worth  raising  at  all  it  is  worth  the  feeding  and  care 
which  will  mean  a  properly  developed  mature  animal.  Only  those 
calves  should  be  raised  which  are  normal  and  healthy  at  birth  and 
which  have  the  breeding  to  make  them  valuable  animals,  and  they 
should  have  the  kind  of  feeding  and  care  which  will  grow  them 
normally  so  that  their  potential  value  will  actually  be  realized. 

54.  Treatment  at  birth. — At  birth  the  navel  stump  should 
be  immediately  disinfected  with  tincture  of  iodine.  This  can  be 
purchased  at  any  drug  store.  The  calf  should  be  left  with  his 
mother  for  at  least  two  days.  If  he  does  not  attempt  to  suck  by 
the  time  he  is  three  to  four  hours  old  he  should  be  helped.  It  is 
important  that  the  calf  receive  the  milk  secreted  by  the  mother 
the  first  forty-eight  hours  after  birth  because  this  milk,  called 
colostrum,  is  laxative  and  cleans  out  the  calf's  digestive  system. 
The  only  condition  under  which  the  calf  should  not  be  left  with 
his  mother  during  the  first  two  days  is  where  the  latter,  through 
being  a  very  heavy  producer  and  perhaps  being  fed  for  test,  may 
develop  milk  fever  if  suckled  too  much.  If  the  calf  is  removed 
under  these  conditions  he  should,  nevertheless,  receive  the  colos- 
trum. 

55.  Teaching  calves  to  drink. — When  the  calf  is  removed 
from  his  mother  he  should  have  a  separate  pen  for  at  least  a  month. 

30 


FEEDING   CALVES  31 

The  pen  should  be  warm,  well  lighted,  and  there  should  be  good 
ventilation  without  drafts.  Beginning  at  the  third  or  fourth  day 
the  calf  should  be  taught  to  drink  from  a  pail. 

At  the  start  the  calf,  depending  on  his  size,  should  receive  six 
to  nine  pounds  (four  and  one-half  quarts)  of  milk  a  day  in  three 
feedings.  During  the  second  week  this  may  be  increased  by  three 
pounds  if  the  calf  is  of  good  size  and  doing  well.  He  should  be  fed 
three  times  a  day  for  at  least  the  first  three  weeks. 

The  milk  fed  should  be  sweet,  clean,  and  be  at  a  temperature  of 
90°  to  100°  F.  It  is  of  prime  importance  that  all  utensils  used  in 
feeding  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  after  use.  Nothing  will 
upset  the  calf  quicker  than  carelessness  with  respect  to  cleanliness 
in  feeding. 

56.  Increasing  the  feed. — After  the  calf  is  two  weeks  old 
his  feeding  will  differ  according  to  whether  he  is  to  be  continued 
on  whole  milk,  or  changed  to  skim  milk,  or  whether,  if  the  latter  is 
not  available,  some  substitute  method  is  to  be  used.  The  use  of 
whole  milk  is  an  expensive  method  but  it  does  result  in  a  rate  of 
growth  and  in  a  bloom  and  finish  obtained  in  no  other  way.  One 
can  hardly  afford  to  use  this  method  except  for  especially  valuable 
animals  or  where  maximum  growth  and  finish  are  desired  for 
show  or  sale.  The  details  of  raising  calves  on  whole  milk  are 
similar  to  those  where  skim  milk  is  employed.  The  use  of  the 
latter  will  be  described  somewhat  at  length  because  it  is  the  method 
by  which  the  vast  majority  of  calves  are  grown. 

Raising  Calves  on  Skim  Milk 

57.  Changing  from  whole  to  skim  milk. — The  calf  should 
get  whole  milk  for  at  least  two  weeks.  At  this  time,  if  it  is  good 
and  strong,  the  change  to  skim  milk  may  be  begun.  At  least  a  week 
or  ten  days  should  be  taken  for  the  change,  which  can  thus  be 
made  at  about  the  rate  of  a  pound  a  day. 

If  during  the  period  of  change  the  manure  becomes  liquid  or 
pasty,  a  condition  commonly  referred  to  as  scouring,  this  is  a 
signal  that  the  food  is  not  being  digested  properly  and  no  further 
increase  of  skim  milk  should  be  made  until  the  difficulty  disappears. 


32  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

It  may  also  aid  under  such  conditions  to  cut  down  the  total  amount 
of  milk  fed,  or  even  omit  one  feeding  entirely.  The  best  cure  for 
such  troubles  is  to  give  the  digestive  system  a  rest.  (62) 

Xo  increase  in  the  total  milk  fed  should  be  made  during  the 
period  of  change.  After  the  latter  has  been  completed  the  amount 
fed  may  be  increased  as  appetite  and  condition  allow.  At  one 
month  of  age  a  calf  will  take  12  to  15  pounds  of  milk  a  day;  at  two 
months,  15  to  18;  and  at  three  months  and  thereafter,  18  to  25  or 
even  more.  By  the  third  month  the  calf  is  usually  consuming 
considerable  grain  and  hay,  and  from  then  on  it  can  get  along  with- 
out increasing  the  skim  milk,  provided  the  supply  of  it  is  limited. 

58.  Feeding  hay. — The  calf  will  begin  to  eat  other  food  be- 
sides milk  at  three  to  four  weeks  of  age.  The  best  roughage  for 
the  calf  is  second  or  third  cutting  alfalfa  or  the  second  cutting  of 
clover.  This  roughage  will  supply  lime  and  vitamines,  other  kinds 
will  not.  Some  calves  will  eat  so  much  of  the  legume  roughage  at 
the  beginning  that  scouring  results.  Thus  it  is  safer  to  start  the 
calf  on  good  mixed  hay  and  change  to  clover  or  alfalfa  after  a  few 
weeks.  If  legume  hay  is  not  available,  of  course  the  best  other 
hay  that  can  be  secured  must  be  used.  The  calf  should  receive  all 
the  hay  he  will  eat,  for  in  addition  to  its  food  value,  the  roughage 
develops  the  digestive  apparatus — one  of  the  essentials  for 
capacity  in  the  mature  animal. 

59.  Feeding  grain. — At  about  the  time  that  the  calf  begins 
to  eat  hay  he  will  also  eat  a  little  dry  grain.  The  following  mixture 
has  been  used  by  us  with  much  satisfaction: 

100  lbs.  wheat  bran 

100  lbs.  ground  oats 

100  lbs.  corn  meal  or  hominy 

50  lbs.  oil  meal 
The  calf  should  receive  all  he  will  eat  of  this  mixture  from  a 
feed  box  nailed  to  the  side  of  the  pen.  The  grain  should  never 
be  mixed  with  the  milk  or  fed  in  the  pail  from  which  the  milk  is 
taken.  At  three  or  four  weeks  of  age  some  of  the  grain  mixture 
may  be  put  in  the  calf's  mouth  following  the  feeding  of  the  milk. 
He  will  soon  learn  to  like  it  and  will  begin  to  eat  it  out  of  the 


FEEDING   CALVES  33 

feed  box.  Grain  should  be  put  in  the  latter  twice  daily  but  never 
in  larger  amounts  than  will  be  cleaned  up.  We  prefer  to  give  the 
calf  only  as  much  grain  as  he  will  clean  up  within  an  hour  or  two 
after  feeding.  Grain  remaining  in  the  feed  box  after  it  is  wet  with 
saliva  loses  its  freshness  rapidly,  particularly  in  hot  weather,  and 
attracts  flies.  At  any  rate,  any  grain  not  eaten  should  be  removed 
before  fresh  is  added.  The  feed  box  should  be  cleaned  out  fre- 
quently, using  an  iron  which  will  get  into  the  corners.  A  simpler 
grain  mixture  than  the  one  mentioned  above  might  be  made 
up  of  equal  parts  of  cracked  corn  and  crushed  oats. 

At  two  months  of  age  the  calf  will  eat  one-half  to.  one  pound  of 
grain  a  day;  at  four  months,  two  to  three  pounds;  and  four  to  six 
pounds  thereafter. 

60.  Feeding  silage. — At  four  months  the  calf  may  have  a  little 
silage.  The  feeding  of  milk  can  be  stopped  at  six  months,  but  it  is 
worth  while  to  continue  it  longer  if  there  is  plenty.  Feeding  after 
six  months  is  discussed  in  Chapter  V. 

It  is  important  that,  beginning  at  three  to  four  weeks  of  age, 
calves  receive  adequate  amounts  of  good  clean  water,  either  by 
having  constant  access  to  it,  or  by  having  it  placed  before  them 
twice  daily  at  other  times  than  at  which  they  are  fed  their  milk. 
This  is,  of  course,  particularly  important  in  warm  weather,  but  it 
is  necessary  in  winter  also.  During  the  past  winter  the  water 
supply  at  the  Cornell  University  barns  became  contaminated 
with  oil,  with  the  result  that  the  calves  drank  little  or  refused  it 
entirely.  A  marked  decrease  in  the  consumption  of  grain  and  hay 
was  immediately  noticed  and  a  loss  in  weight  occurred  with  the 
older  calves, — conditions  that  were  overcome  as  soon  as  good 
water  was  obtained. 

61.  Clean  and  dry  pens. — It  is  important  that  the  calves 
should  have  clean  and  dry  quarters.  The  temperature  of  the 
stable  may  be  rather  low  but  the  pens  must  not  be  damp.  There 
should  be  good  ventilation  but  drafts  should  be  avoided.  When 
the  barn  space  will  allow,  it  is  preferable  that  each  calf  have  a 
separate  pen  for  the  first  six  months.  In  this  way,  each  animal 
can  receive  more  individual  attention  and  be  fed  as  an  individual. 


34  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

Where  a  calf  is  alone  a  ease  of  scours  will  be  noticed  at  once  and 
the  feeding  modified  accordingly.  Separate  pens  keep  the  calves 
from  sucking  each  other's  ears.  A  pen  four  by  six  feet  will  be  large 
enough.  It  should  have  a  feed  box  for  grain  at  such  a  height  that 
the  calf  can  reach  it  without  straining  and  it  should  have  a  slat 
feed  rack  for  hay.  The  partitions  between  pens  should  be  three 
feet  high.  Where  more  than  one  calf  must  be  put  in  a  pen,  larger 
pens  will  be  needed.  In  this  case,  it  is  a  good  thing  to  have 
stanchions  with  a  feed  manger  wide  enough  to  hold  the  milk  pail. 
The  grain  can  be  fed  right  after  the  milk  and  then  the  calves  can 
be  loosened  from  the  stanchions. 

In  summer  calves  are  much  annoyed  by  flies  and  do  not  do  as 
well  on  that  account.  During  the  times  when  the  flies  are  espe- 
cially bad,  spraying  with  a  good  fly  repellant  is  worth  while. 

62.  Scours. — The  most  common  trouble  that  will  be  met  with 
in  rearing  calves  is  scours.  We  have  previously  referred  to  it  in 
connection  with  the  change  to  skim  milk.  It  is  most  likely  to 
occur  during  the  first  two  months.  When  scouring  occurs  it 
indicates  that  the  food  is  not  being  handled  properly.  In  addition 
to  its  resulting  from  a  change  of  food,  the  most  probable  causes 
are  too  much  food  and  lack  of  cleanliness  and  regularity  in  feeding. 
When  the  trouble  occurs  the  feeder  should  satisfy  himself  that  his 
utensils  are  being  cleaned  property  and  that  the  skim  milk  fed  is 
sweet,  clean  and  at  the  proper  temperature.  If  the  trouble  does 
not  clear  up  in  a  day  or  two  he  should  next  cut  down  the  amount 
of  food  temporarily,  or  even  omit  a  feeding  or  two  entirely. 
Scouring  must  not  be  allowed  to  continue.  Not  only  will  growth 
be  hindered,  but  the  longer  the  condition  exists  the  more  difficult 
it  is  to  overcome.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  cut  down  the  feed  under 
these  conditions.  Food  which  is  not  digested  properly  not  only 
is  of  no  use  to  the  animal,  but  also  forms  products  harmful  to  the 
system.  Most  feeders  are  apt  to  err  on  the  side  of  overfeeding 
rather  than  underfeeding,  particularly  in  the  early  months.  It  is 
a  good  thing  to  remember  in  connection  with  all  materials  fed 
that  the  calf  will  do  better  if  he  does  not  get  quite  enough  to 
satisfy  his  appetite  than  if  so  much  is  given  that  a  part  is  refused. 


FEEDING   CALVES 


35 


63.  White  scours. — This  trouble  is  very  different  from  the 
common  scours  just  referred  to.  It  is  a  contagious  form  and  in- 
fection comes  a  few  hours  after  birth.  The  germs  gain  entrance 
through  the  umbilical  cord.  The  best  remedy  for  white  scours  is 
the  preventive  one  of  cleanliness.  The  stalls  used  for  calving 
purposes  should  be  kept  clean.  Particularly  they  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  after  each  calf  is  born.  The  disinfection  of  the 
navel  with  iodine  at  birth,  as  we  have  previously  described,  is 
another  preventive  measure.  (54)  In  white  scours  the  feces  are 
very  light  colored  and  have  a  very  bad  odor.  The  affected  animal 
will  soon  die  unless  treated,  and  therefore  a  veterinarian  should 
be  called. 

64.  The  ideal  calf. — He  should  be  round-barreled  and  plump 
and  his  belly  should  be  held  up  snugly.  He  should  have  a  soft 
loose  hide  with  glossy  hair.  He  should  have  a  straight  back  and 
straight  legs.  The  calf  should  have  an  active  but  not  restless 
disposition  and  its  eyes  should  be  clear  and  alert.  Of  course,  he 
should  have  the  proper  size  for  his  age  and  this  size  should  be 
shown  both  in  weight  and  in  frame. 

65.  Normal  growth. — The  following  table  has  been  prepared 
from  data  reported  by  Eckles  in  Missouri  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  36,  entitled  "The  Normal  Growth  of  Dairy  Cattle": 


Normal  Weights  of  Females  During  the  Groicing  Period 


Normal  Weight  in  Pounds 

Age 

Months 

Holsteins 

Jerseys 

Ayrshires 

Shorthorns 

Birth 

90 

55 

69 

73 

1 

121 

76 

90 

118 

2 

157 

105 

128 

133 

3 

200 

140 

170 

174 

4 

249 

174 

218 

225 

5 

302 

222 

254 

268 

6 

349 

260 

286 

316 

9 

466 

376 

366 

461 

12 

558 

456 

456 

547 

18 

686 

572 

604 

668 

24 

841 

716 

759 

845 

30 

1021 

36  BETTER  DAIRY  FARMING 

66.  Dehorning  calves. — If  calves  are  to  be  dehorned  the  best 
time  is  before  they  are  three  weeks  of  age.  It  may  be  done  by  the  use 
of  a  stick  of  caustic  potash  which  can  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store. 

Clip  the  hair  away  from  the  button  of  the  horn.  Dip  the  end 
of  the  potash  stick  in  water  and  rub  the  horn  hard  until  the  skin 
all  round  the  button  is  raw  and  bleeds  a  little.    The  important 


we  , 

'        T&B& 

:      r  .,  ;     .. 

*...  .■ ....  <  ,         ..  .    v" ' 

W^9 

*Am.                                -jyB^L  '    wSsk 

*A          »  'v^P^U 

rv 

ifr  *vl>  j 

^mmKtSUBSSSSs^EB^^^^^^S^^^^ 

1      f^j0m* 

'    ■  j   m 

Preventing  the  Growth  of  Horns 
(a)  First  step,  hold  the  calf  securely. 

thing  is  to  do  the  job  thoroughly  so  that  all  the  horn  tissue  is 
destroyed.  Otherwise  a  nubby,  misshapen  horn  will  grow,  spoiling 
the  appearance  of  the  animal's  head.  Finally  the  raw  skin  should 
be  smeared  with  vaseline.  The  sores  will  rapidly  heal  and  require 
no  further  attention.  Because  of  the  burning  properties  of  the 
potash  stick  the  end  by  which  it  is  held  should  be  wrapped  in 
paper.  For  the  same  reason  the  liquid  produced  in  treating  the 
horn  must  not  be  allowed  to  run  down  into  the  calf's  eyes.  Cattle 
that  have  been  dehorned  are  more  docile  and  less  likely  to  injure 
each  other  or  the  attendants. 


FEEDING   CALVES 


37 


Preventing  the  Growth  of  Horns 
(b)  Second  step,  trim  away  the  hair  over  the  button-like  lump. 


Preventing  the  Growth  of  Horns 
(c)    Third  step,  rub  the  skin  over  the  lump  with  a  dampened  stick  of  caustic 
potash. 


38  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

Raising  Calves  with  a  Limited  Amount   of  Milk 

On  many  farms  there  is  need  for  a  method  of  raising  calves 
where  only  a  small  amount  of  milk  can  be  used.  Otherwise  the 
farmer  cannot  raise  his  own  stock  and  thus  breed  up  his  herd. 
One  method  of  doing  this  is  to  substitute  a  special  ration  fed  as  a 
gruel  at  the  time  the  change  is  ordinarily  made  to  skim  milk. 
Another  method  is  to  continue  the  calf  on  whole  milk  to  two  or 
three  months  of  age  and  then  use  dry  grain  and  hay  as  the  only 
feeds. 

67.  Amount  of  whole  milk  necessary. — Where  the  latter 
system  is  practiced  the  calf  is  fed  during  the  first  two  or  three 
months  similarly  to  the  method  described  for  rearing  on  skim  milk 
except  that  whole  milk  is  used.  The  time  of  cutting  out  the  milk 
is  governed  by  the  thrift iness  of  the  calf.  It  is  usually  not  best  to 
attempt  it  before  two  months  of  age  and  for  the  average  calf  it 
is  better  to  wait  until  the  middle  of  the  third  month,  to  give  the 
animal  as  good  a  start  as  possible.  The  milk  should  be  removed 
gradually  taking  about  ten  days  for  its  completion.  With  the 
removal  of  the  milk  the  grain  feeding  must  be  increased.  The  calf 
should  receive  all  it  will  clean  up.  The  same  is  true  of  the  hay. 
It  is  essential  that  the  hay  be  clover  or  alfalfa  of  the  best  possible 
quality.  Professor  C.  H.  Eckles  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station  has  reported  a  series  of  trials  of  raising  calves  according 
to  this  system.  The  calves  were  only  a  little  below  normal  size  at 
six  months  of  age  and  were  entirely  up  to  normal  at  eight  months. 

Raising  Calves  on  Calf  Meal  Gruels 

The  calf  meal  gruel  method  involves  the  substitution  for  milk, 
after  the  calf  is  a  few  weeks  of  age,  of  a  gruel,  consisting  princi- 
pally of  a  grain  mixture  combined  with  water  in  such  a  way  as  to 
come  as  close  as  possible  to  the  chemical  composition  of  milk. 
There  have  recently  been  raised  on  a  calf  meal  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sity calves  comparing  favorably  at  6  months  of  age  with  those  of 
similar  age  raised  on  skim  milk.  From  our  experience  we  have  no 
reason  to  believe  that  calves  so  raised  in  a  proper  manner  suffer 


FEEDING   CALVES  39 

in  productive  ability  thereby.  Thus,  to  those  farmers  who  have 
only  a  limited  supply  of  milk  to  feed  their  calves  we  recommend 
the  use  of  the  calf  meal  method. 

68.  Proprietary  calf  meals. — There  are  a  number  of  proprie- 
tary mixtures  on  the  market  under  the  name  of  calf  meals  which 
are  designed  to  be  fed  as  a  gruel  in  place  of  milk.  We  have  tried 
out  several  of  these  products  and  in  general  found  them  satisfac- 
tory, though  of  course  some  have  given  better  results  than  others. 
Since  we  have  not  tried  them  all  and  since  the  formulas  of  those 
we  have  used  may  have  changed,  it  is  not  fair  to  the  manufacturers 
that  we  select  among  them  here.  We  can,  however,  mention 
certain  things  which  will  aid  the  farmer  in  choosing  among 
them. 

We  believe  a  good  calf  meal  should  have  20  to  25  per  cent  of 
protein  and  not  over  5  per  cent  of  crude  fiber.  It  should  contain 
no  ingredient  which  experience  has  taught  to  be  unsuitable  for 
feeding  young  animals.  Our  experience  indicates  that  compounds 
of  lime  and  phosphorus  are  desirable.  The  mixture  should  be 
finely  ground  and  should  not  settle  too  rapidly  when  placed  in 
water.  There  seems  to  be  an  opinion  among  some  farmers  that 
the  more  ingredients  a  calf  meal  has  the  better  it  must  be.  Unusual 
ingredients  also  make  an  appeal  to  some  who  think  that  the 
manufacturer  has  discovered  something  new  which  is  specially 
suited  for  the  purpose.  To  others  a  high  price  seems  to  indicate  a 
specially  valuable  product.  None  of  these  things  necessarily  indi- 
cate a  good  calf  meal. 

It  is  true,  however,  that  the  ingredients  of  a  satisfactory  calf 
meal  must  be  more  specially  selected  than  those  of  the  dairy 
ration.  A  big  reason  for  this  is  that  materials  of  low  fiber  content 
are  essential.  This  also  means  a  more  expensive  mixture.  How- 
ever, it  has  been  our  observation  that  in  general  the  calf  meals  on 
the  market  are  much  too  high  in  price  in  view  of  the  ingredients 
they  contain.  The  margin  between  the  cost  of  the  ingredients  and 
the  finished  product  is  much  greater  for  them  than  for  proprietary 
dairy  feeds.  This  situation  indicates  the  desirability  of  a  simple 
formula  which  can  be  mixed  at  home.    Here  one  meets  the  diffi- 


40 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


culty  that  the  average  feed  store   does  not   carry  the   special 
ingredients  needed. 

69.   A   successful   calf   meal. — For  some  years  at   Cornell 
University  various  formulas  have  been  fed  to  find  a  satisfactory 
one  for  home  mixing.   The  following  formula  (Cornell  Formula  2), 
devised  by  Maynard  and  Norris,  has  given  the  best  results  to  date: 
250  lbs.  red  dog  flour 
250  lbs.  corn  meal 
150  lbs.  ground  oat  groats 
150  lbs.  oil  meal 
100  lbs.  ground  malted  barley 
100  lbs.  soluble  blood  flour 
10  lbs.  salt 

10  lbs.  precipitated  bone  meal 
10  lbs.  precipitated  calcium  carbonate. 


Calf  Raised  on  Calf  Meal  Gruel 
Weight  at  birth  90  pounds.    Weight  at  age  of  six  months,  423  pounds. 
Average  daily  gain  1.85  pounds. 


FEEDING   CALVES  41 

In  1921-22  eight  calves  were  reared  on  the  foregoing  ration,  all  of 
which  exceeded  an  average  daily  gain  of  one  and  one-half  pounds 
from  birth  to  six  months  of  age.  In  this  group  were  six  Holstein 
heifer  calves.  They  had  an  average  weight  of  400  pounds  at  six 
months  of  age.  The  average  food  consumption  for  the  six  months' 
period  was:  450  pounds  whole  milk,  300  pounds  calf  meal,  350 
pounds  other  grain,  and  about  350  pounds  hay.  These  results 
show  clearly  that  it  is  possible  to  grow  calves  satisfactorily  on  a 
calf  meal  for  they  represent  better  growth  than  the  average  for 
skim  milk  calves  as  reported  on  page  35.  These  results  must  not 
be  taken  to  mean  that  the  use  of  this  formula  is  preferable  to 
skim  milk.  Where  the  latter  is  available,  it  constitutes  the  more 
economical  and  satisfactory  method. 

70.  Difficulty  with  home  mixing. — The  trouble  with  the 
above  formula  for  home  mixing  is  that  some  of  the  ingredients 
would  have  to  be  specially  ordered  and  this  would  mean  consid- 
erable trouble  and  expense  for  the  farmer  with  only  a  few  calves 
to  feed.  It  is  also  difficult  to  obtain  the  ingredients  as  finely 
ground  as  desired.  When  these  difficulties  were  appreciated  it 
seemed  to  us  that  instead  of  attempting  home  mixing  it  might  be 
preferable  for  a  group  of  farmers  to  have  the  formula  mixed  by  a 
local  miller. 

The  Grange  League  Federation  Exchange  of  Ithaca,  New 
York,  is  now  marketing  a  calf  meal  under  an  open  formula  which 
is  substantially  the  same  as  the  one  previously  given.  The  formula 
is  given  in  paragraph  123. 

71.  A  simpler  formula  for  home  mixing. — Where  a  simpler 
formula  for  home  mixing  is  desired  we  can  recommend  the  follow- 
ing as  a  fairly  satisfactory  one  on  the  basis  of  our  experience : 

250  lbs.  red  dog  flour  or  flour  wheat  middlings 
250  lbs.  corn  meal    . 
250  lbs.  ground  barley 
150  lbs.  oil  meal 
100  lbs.  blood  flour 

20  lbs.  steamed  bone  meal 

10  lbs.  salt 


42  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

Each  ingredient  of  the  above  should  be  ground  fine  enough  to  pass 
a  twenty-mesh  sieve.  If  not  obtainable  locally,  the  bone  meal  can 
be  obtained  from  the  United  Chemical  and  Organic  Products 
Company,  Chicago,  111. 

72.  How  to  feed  a  calf  meal. — Most  manufacturers  of  pro- 
prietary calf  meals  furnish  directions  as  to  how  to  use  them. 
These  directions  should  be  read  carefully.  We  will  outline  the 
method  used  at  Cornell  University. 

73.  Changing  from  milk  to  calf  meal. — The  calf  should 
receive  whole  milk  for  four  weeks,  at  which  time  its  gradual  re- 
placement by  the  calf  meal  gruel  may  be  begun.  In  the  case  of  the 
formulas  which  we  have  given,  one  part  should  be  mixed  with  five 
parts  by  weight  of  water  at  about  100°  F.  Begin  by  replacing  about 
one-fifth  of  the  milk  by  gruel.  After  three  or  four  days  replace 
another  fifth  and  so  on  until  the  change  is  completed.  Do  not 
begin  the  change  with  any  calf  while  it  is  scouring.  If  scouring 
develops  during  the  change,  make  no  further  replacement  until 
the  trouble  clears  up.  It  may  be  a  good  thing  to  cut  down  the 
amount  fed  for  a  feeding  or  two  or  even  to  cut  out  a  feeding  en- 
tirely. If  the  scouring  persists  a  temporary  change  back  to  milk 
only  may  be  worth  while  to  get  the  calf  back  to  normal.  From  our 
experience  we  can  say  that  the  above  procedures  will  rarely  be 
necessary,  but  success  in  using  a  calf  meal  comes  from  feeding  it 
according  to  the  condition  of  the  calf  rather  than  following  fixed 
rules. 

The  period  of  change  and  the  following  two  or  three  weeks  are 
the  crucial  period.  The  substitution  of  another  food  at  a  time  when 
nature  intended  the  calf  to  have  milk  can  only  be  done  success- 
fully by  allowing  the  calf  to  become  gradually  accustomed  to 
handling  the  new  food. 

74.  Increasing  the  calf  meal  gruel. — As  soon  as  the  calf  has 
been  entirely  changed  to  the  calf  meal  gruel  and  is  accustomed  to 
it,  the  gruel  can  be  increased  with  appetite.  Do  not  increase  it 
quite  as  rapidly  as  we  suggested  for  skim  milk.  It  is  best  to  reach 
a  figure  of  15  pounds  a  day  at  four  months  of  age  and  continue 
at  that  amount  for  the  remaining  two  months.    Although  maxi- 


FEEDING   CALVES  43 

mum  growth  will  be  secured  by  feeding  the  gruel  until  six  months 
of  age  it  is  possible  to  discontinue  it  at  four  months  by  withdraw- 
ing it  gradually.  Of  course,  this  will  cut  down  the  cost  of  raising 
the  calf,  inasmuch  as  the  calf  meal  is  more  expensive  than  an 
ordinary  grain  ration.  The  gruel  feeding  should  not  be  stopped 
unless  the  calf  is  eating  the  dry  grain  and  hay  well  and  is  in 
thrifty  condition. 

It  is  clear  that  the  same  precautions  as  to  cleanliness,  regularity 
of  feeding,  etc.,  as  we  have  mentioned  in  connection  with  raising 
calves  on  milk  must  be  observed  where  a  calf  meal  is  used.  The 
same  directions  we  gave  for  feeding  grain  and  roughage  to  calves 
reared  on  milk  also  apply.  The  use  of  the  best  possible  roughage 
is  even  more  important  for  calves  reared  on  calf  meal.  The  latter 
supplies  little  of  the  lime  and  vitamines  liberally  furnished  by 
milk,  but  these  essentials  will  be  furnished  by  leafy  roughage, 
particularly  that  cured  as  described  in  paragraphs  339,  340, 
341.  The  calf  raised  on  gruel  may  not  eat  grain  as  readily  as 
where  milk  is  used  because  the  calf  meal  itself  is  really  a  grain 
mixture. 

75.  Calf  meal  not  needed  with  milk.— Some  dairymen  use 
a  proprietary  calf  meal  as  a  dry  grain  mixture  for  calves  raised  on 
milk.  There  is  no  object  in  using  such  an  expensive  feed,  and  as  a 
supplement  to  skim  milk,  a  low-protein  mixture  such  as  the  dry 
grain  mixtures  we  have  listed  is  preferable.  (59)  Skim  milk  is  a 
high-protein  feed  and  the  grain  mixture  fed  with  it  should  be  made 
up  principally  of  low-protein  ingredients. 

76.  Dried  skim  milk  for  calves. — Occasionally  a  dairyman 
living  in  the  section  where  milk-drying  plants  are  located  is  able 
to  get  rather  cheaply  dried  skim  milk,  which  is  off  quality  and 
which  cannot  be  used  in  human  food.  This  dried  product,  when 
mixed  with  water  has  been  found  very  satisfactory  for  use  in  place 
of  fresh  skim  milk  for  feeding  calves.  One  part  of  the  dried  material 
should  be  added  to  nine  parts  of  warm  water  and  fed  the  same  as 
milk.  It  is  best  to  add  only  a  small  amount  of  water  first  and  to 
break  up  the  lumps  formed  by  the  dried  milk  before  adding  the 
rest  of  the  water.    If  this  scrap  milk  can  be  bought  at  three  or  four 


44  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

cents  a  pound  it  is  the  best  feed  for  calves  where  whole  or  skim 
milk  cannot  be  fed.  If  the  dairyman  can  get  it  in  limited  amounts 
only  he  can  use  it  to  advantage  in  one  of  the  calf  meal  formulas  we 
have  listed.  If  it  could  be  made  20  per  cent  of  the  mixture,  the 
blood  meal  and  minerals,  except  the  salt,  could  be  omitted. 
Thus  the  dried  milk  could  replace  those  materials  hard  to  get. 

77.  Lead  poisoning. — A  good  many  calves  are  lost  from  time 
to  time  through  lead  poisoning.  Veterinarians  and  chemists  have 
traced  many  deaths  to  it,  where  the  owner  would  have  been  willing 
to  swear  that  the  calf  had  no  chance  to  eat  anything  containing 
lead.  Few  dairymen  appreciate  the  variety  of  ways  in  which  a 
calf  may  be  poisoned  from  lead. 

78.  Most  paint  contains  lead. — This  fact  is  generally  under- 
stood. Young  calves  habitually  lick  everything.  A  freshly 
painted  wall,  a  discarded  paint  container,  carelessly  left  around 
the  barn  or  thrown  on  a  rubbish  heap,  in  the  yard  or  pasture, 
furnish  the  calf  his  opportunity.  Many  do  not  appreciate  that 
calves  will  eat  paint.  We  know  from  personal  experience  that  they 
will  drink  paint  right  down  if  given  a  chance.  When  calves  get 
access  to  a  paint  bucket,  or  freshly  painted  surface  they  usually 
swallow  enough  to  produce  acute  symptoms  rapidly  followed  by 
death.    Consequently  the  cause  is  generally  located. 

79.  Slow  poisoning  from  lead. — There  is  another  type  of 
lead  poisoning,  however,  which  is  harder  to  locate.  It  is  based  on 
the  fact  that  lead  is  a  cumulative  poison.  This  means  that,  even 
though  not  enough  may  be  taken  at  any  one  time  to  cause  char- 
acteristic symptoms  of  poisoning,  lead  gradually  accumulates  in 
the  system  until  there  is  enough  to  kill  the  calf.  This  is  the  way  in 
which  a  lot  of  unsuspected  lead  poisoning  occurs.  Old,  dry  paint 
is  just  as  dangerous  as  fresh,  and  wherever  there  is  a  painted 
board  that  the  calf  can  get  at,  a  gradual  poisoning  may  occur. 
Many  like  to  have  fancy  quarters  for  their  animals  and  thus 
everything  is  painted.  Much  lead  poisoning  occurs  under  these 
conditions.  Even  those  who  insist  that  no  paint  is  used  around 
the  calf's  quarters  frequently  find  an  old  painted  board  handy  for 
repairing  a  manger  or  partition  and  use  it  without  realizing  that  the 


FEEDING   CALVES  45 

calf  may  lick  that  board  until  poisoning  results.  Most  dairymen 
will,  on  thinking  the  matter  over,  realize  that  their  calves  may  at 
times  have  a  chance  to  lick  a  painted  board  or  wall.  The  thing 
that  they  must  also  realize  is  that,  though  unobserved,  a  calf  may 
be  getting  just  a  little  lead  into  its  system  day  by  day, — an  amount 
too  small  to  cause  any  noticeable  trouble  except  as  it  piles  up  and 
finally  kills  the  animal. 

The  symptoms  of  lead  poisoning,  particularly  in  the  cumulative 
variety,  are  variable.  Convulsions  and  paralysis  are  frequent. 
Curative  measures  sometimes  avail  if  applied  sufficiently  promptly, 
particularly  in  cases  of  acute  poisoning.  It  is  a  case  for  a  veterina- 
rian. About  the  only  thing  the  owner  can  do  is  to  give  a  physic  in 
an  endeavor  to  get  the  poison  out  of  the  system. 

80.  Prevention. — The  remedy  for  lead  poisoning  is  prevention 
rather  than  cure.  If  the  dairyman  will  simply  realize  that  it  is 
natural  for  a  calf  to  lick  anything  and  everything,  and  that  if 
there  is  any  paint  anywhere,  no  matter  how  old  or  how  dry,  the 
calf  may  gradually  get  enough  to  be  poisoned,  it  will  not  be 
difficult  for  him  to  guard  against  the  losses  from  this  source.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  paint  the  interior  of  the  barn  to  make  it  look 
clean;  whitewash  will  do  as  well  and  it  is  harmless.  Or,  if  a  man 
insists  on  paint,  he  can  get  one  that  contains  no  lead. 


CHAPTER  V 
FEEDING  YEARLINGS  AND  TWO-YEAR-OLDS 

Having  reared  the  calf  to  six  months  of  age  the  problem  of  its 
feeding  and  management  becomes  easier,  much  less  attention  and 
care  being  required.  However,  many  dairymen  pay  too  little 
attention  to  the  young  animal  from  the  time  it  is  six  months  of 
age  until  the  first  calf  is  dropped. 

81.  Turning  out  the  calf. — The  feeding  and  management  of 
the  young  heifer  after  six  months  of  age  will  differ  according  to 
whether  she  is  to  be  turned  out  on  pasture  the  first  summer.  This, 
of  course,  depends  upon  the  time  of  year  the  calf  is  born.  In  gen- 
eral, no  calf  should  be  turned  out  before  she  is  six  months  of  age 
and  under  New  York  State  conditions  no  calf  should  be  turned  out 
at  all  during  the  first  summer  unless  six  months  old  before  July 
15th.  After  this  date  the  combination  of  poor  pasture,  heat  and 
flies  will  keep  the  young  animal  from  doing  well. 

82.  Feeding  in  the  barn. — While  the  calf  is  in  the  barn  after 
the  six-month  period  the  feeding  of  skim  milk  may  be  continued  with 
profit  if  it  is  available.  With  calves  raised  on  a  calf  meal  it  is  our 
custom  to  discontinue  the  gruel  at  this  age.  When  the  feeding  of 
either  skim  milk  or  gruel  is  stopped,  it  should  be  done  gradually, 
feeding  them  in  decreasing  amounts  for  at  least  a  week. 

The  young  heifer  while  in  the  barn  should  receive  all  the  hay  she 
will  eat  and  this  should  be  legume  hay  where  possible.  This  kind 
of  hay  is  especially  needed  where  no  milk  is  being  fed,  because 
otherwise,  the  feed  may  not  contain  sufficient  lime  or  vitamines. 
After  six  months  of  age  the  calf  should  receive  some  silage.  In 
fact  this  feed  may  be  started  as  early  as  the  fourth  month  to 
advantage  if  the  farmer  has  plenty.  Ten  to  fifteen  pounds  of 
silage  a  day  is  a  fair  allowance  for  the  young  heifer.  Of  course,  the 
animal  must  also  receive  liberal  amounts  of  grain, — from  four  to 
six  pounds  a  day  depending  on  whether  the  feeding  of  skim  milk  is 
being  continued.    As  a  grain  mixture  we  know  of  nothing  better 

46 


FEEDING   YEARLINGS   AND   TWO-YEAR-OLDS    47 

than  that  we  have  recommended  for  the  younger  calves  in  para- 
graph 59. 

83.  The  calf  on  pasture. — When  the  calf  can  be  turned  out 
on  pasture  the  first  summer,  she  can  be  raised  more  cheaply  and 
with  less  labor  than  where  she  must  be  kept  in  the  barn.  However, 
we  should  keep  an  eye  on  each  animal  to  make  sure  that  she  is 


Imp.  King  of  the  May  9001 
The  most  noted  Guernsey  bull.     Owned  by  Langwater  Farms,   North 
Easton,  Mass. 


growing  well.  If  any  calf  is  unthrifty  we  should  try  to  arrange 
it  so  that  such  an  animal  can  have  a  little  grain  to  supplement 
the  pasture.  In  general,  by  the  middle  of  summer  the  pastures 
have  become  rather  poor  and  all  calves  should  receive  some  grain. 
For  this  purpose  use  the  mixture  we  have  suggested  for  young 
calves  in  paragraph  59.     It  is  fine  if  the  young  stock  on  pasture 


48  BETTER  DAIRY  FARMING 

can  have  a  cool  dark  basement  or  similar  place  into  which  they 
can  go  to  escape  the  heat  and  flies.  Any  place  that  is  dark  will 
cause  the  flies  to  leave  the  animals.  When  the  heifer  is  brought 
into  the  barn  from  pasture  she  should  receive  all  the  hay  of  the 
best  quality  available  she  will  clean  up,  also  all  the  silage  she  will 
eat  if  it  is  available,  and  four  to  six  pounds  of  grain  a  day. 

84.  Breeding  the  heifer. — About  this  time  the  farmer  faces 
the  question  as  to  when  the  heifer  shall  be  bred.  This  is  a  point 
on  which  there  is  a  considerable  difference  of  opinion.  It  is  our 
belief  that  the  heifer  should  be  bred  to  drop  her  first  calf  from 
twenty-four  to  thirty  months  of  age.  Of  course,  the  breeder  must 
be  guided  somewhat  by  the  size  and  state  of  development  of  the 
individual,  and  he  should  also  remember  that  Guernseys  and 
Jerseys  may  be  bred  somewhat  earlier  than  the  slower-maturing 
Holsteins,  Ayrshires  and  Brown  Swiss. 

In  favor  of  early  breeding  it  should  be  remembered  that  until 
the  heifer  becomes  a  milk  producer  she  yields  no  income.  The 
condition  of  pregnancy  has  a  marked  stimulating  effect  on  her 
development  and  experience  indicates  that  milk-secreting  capacity 
is  favored  by  early  breeding.  Of  course,  it  is  recognized  that  the 
production  of  the  foetus  temporarily  checks  growth,  but  con- 
stantly recurring  periods  of  heat  may  have  just  as  great  a  retard- 
ing effect  on  her  development. 

We  have  recommended  the  liberal  feeding  of  young  stock.  This 
is  particularly  important  for  the  heifer  as  soon  as  she  is  a  few 
months  along  with  calf.  Give  her  all  the  legume  hay  and  silage 
she  will;  clean  up,  and  four  to  six  pounds  of  grain  a  day.  The 
mixture  to  which  we  have  previously  referred  (59)  will  prove 
satisfactory  here.  Another  used  with  good  results  is  as  follows: 
500  lbs.  gluten  feed  400  lbs.  wheat  bran 

500  lbs.  ground  oats  100  lbs.  oil  meal 

500  lbs.  hominy  feed 

We  could  sum  up  our  discussion  of  the  feeding  and  management 
of  heifers  by  saying:  " Feed  liberally  and  breed  early."  All  that 
we  have  said  in  the  raising  of  calves  and  in  the  feeding  of  yearlings 
and  two-year-olds  applies  to  the  bulls  as  well  as  to  the  heifers. 


CHAPTER  VI 

FEEDING  FOR  OFFICIAL  RECORDS 

The  value  of  an  animal  is  based  upon  performance.  A  high 
production  record  increases  the  value  both  of  the  cow  and  her 
offspring;  for  high  producing  cows  and  bulls  with  ancestors  and 
progeny  of  demonstrated  high  productive  capacity  are  those 
sought  for  breeding  purposes.  The  advanced  registry  systems 
established  by  the  various  breed  associations  are  the  means  where- 
by an  animal's  performance  can  be  officially  recorded.  This 
development  has  played  a  large  part  in  the  advancement  of  our 
dairy  industry  and  the  feeding  for  records  has  an  important  place 
in  the  breeder's  business. 

85.  The  advanced  registry.— Advanced  registry  means  a 
further  registry  in  addition  to  that  to  which  every  purebred 
animal  is  entitled.  To  qualify  for  advanced  registry,  or  register  of 
merit  as  it  is  called  for  some  breeds,  an  animal  must  attain  a 
certain  standard  of  production  under  official  supervision.  This 
supervision  is  usually  by  a  representative  of  the  State  College  of 
Agriculture  who  is  present  during  the  test  period  to  weigh  the 
milk  and  determine  its  fat  content.  Each  breed  association  has 
established  the  standards  for  that  breed.  These  standards 
specify  the  amount  of  milk  or  butter  fat  which  must  be  produced 
in  a 'given  period.  The  required  production  increases  with  age 
up  to  maturity.  Maturity  is  defined  as  five  years.  Any  breeder 
can  obtain  from  his  breed  association  booklets  containing  the 
detailed  information  as  to  the  requirements  for  advanced  register . 
(151)  For  our  discussion  of  feeding  it  is  sufficient  to  bear  in  mind 
that  the  official  records  are  usually  based  on  seven  days,  or  a 
year's  production.  The  first  is  referred  to  as  a  short-time  record 
and  the  second  as  a  long-time  record.  The  method  of  feeding  will 
be  discussed  under  these  two  heads.  Success  in  feeding  for  records 
is  based  on  three  things:  an  animal  of  high  productive  capacity, 
intelligence  and  skill  in  feeding,  and  the  right  kind  of  rations. 

49 


50 


BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 


86.  Fitting  a  cow  for  the  test. — A  cow  must  have  an 
adequate  rest  period  before  calving  and  must  be  fed  so  as  to  put 
her  in  the  best  possible  condition  and  have  a  maximum  of  stored-up 
energy  for  milk  production.  It  is  believed  that  most  animals  will 
produce  a  milk  higher  in  butter  fat  at  least  for  a  short  period  where 


Glista  Ernestine  117999  Well  Fitted  to  Make  an  Official  Record 
Yearly  record  23,341  pounds  of  milk;  833.73  pounds  of  butter  fat.     Owned 
by  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


they  have  been  well  fattened  during  fitting.    Thus  fattening  is 
particularly  important  where  short-time  records  are  concerned. 

The  dry  period  should  be  somewhat  longer  than  usual  where  a 
cow  is  to  be  tested.  Two  to  three  months  or  even  longer  should 
be  allowed.  In  the  case  where  heifers  are  to  be  tested  we  should 
start  planning  for  the  test  even  farther  back  and  not  breed  quite 
as  early  as  otherwise  in  order  that  the}'  may  have  a  better  start, 


FEEDING   FOR   OFFICIAL  RECORDS  51 

since  the  strain  of  forcing  them  for  high  production  the  first 
lactation  may  keep  them  from  growing  normally  during  the 
period.  The  heifer  must  be  fed  from  the  start  so  that  she  will  be 
as  well  developed  as  possible  at  calving. 

87.  The  fitting  ration.— The  ration  during  the  fitting 
period  should  consist  of  a  good  grain  mixture  together  with 
pasture  or  hay  and  silage.  Legume  hay  is  the  kind  to  use  and  the 
quality  should  be  the  best.  In  feeding  for  records  the  dairyman 
should  adopt  the  attitude  that  the  cow  is  to  have  the  best  feed 
obtainable  without  regard  to  price.  He  cannot  afford  to  waste  the 
money  he  spends  for  official  supervision  and  other  extra  labor  and 
expense  by  economizing  on  the  feed. 

There  must  be  succulent  feed  during  the  fitting  period  to  keep 
the  animal  in  the  best  condition.  If  pasture  or  silage  are  not 
available  roots  will  prove  satisfactory  if  they  are  to  be  had. 
Roots  are  especially  useful  during  the  test  period  and  if  the  feeder 
has  only  a  limited  supply  they  must  be  saved  for  that  period. 
Beet  pulp  moistened  with  three  to  four  times  its  weight  of  water, 
to  which  a  little  molasses  has  been  added,  will  prove  useful  in  the 
absence  of  other  succulence. 

The  grain  mixture  should  be  light,  palatable,  laxative  and  not 
too  high  in  protein.   A  good  mixture  is: 

30  lbs.  hominy 

30  lbs.  wheat  bran 

30  lbs.  ground  oats 

10  lbs.  oil  meal 
Many  prefer  to  increase  the  oil  meal  sufficiently  to  use  equal  parts 
of  the  four  feeds.  Corn  meal  can  be  substituted  for  hominy  except 
during  the  week  or  ten  days  immediately  before  calving.  At  this 
time  corn  meal  and  hominy  should  be  dropped  out  to  lighten  the 
ration.  Ground  barley  can  be  used  in  place  of  the  oats  or  hominy. 

88.  Feed  individually. — An  important  thing  during  the  test 
period  is  to  feed  the  cow  the  things  she  likes  best.  With  an 
animal  whose  tastes  are  not  known,  the  best  time  to  find  out  is 
during  the  fitting  period  and  it  is  well  to  dry  different  combina- 
tions for  this  purpose. 


52  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

The  amount  of  grain  to  be  fed  during  the  fitting  period  will 
depend  on  the  animal's  size  and  condition.  Usually  she  should 
be  fed  all  she  will  clean  up.  Mature  cows  will  eat  from  ten  to 
twenty  or  more  pounds  a  day.  Of  course,  if  the  cow  is  on  excellent 
pasture  much  less  grain  is  needed. 

89.  Minerals  in  the  fitting  ration.— The  fitting  period 
corresponds  with  the  time  when  the  animal's  demands  for  lime 
and  phosphorus  are  high.  She  is  replenishing  her  bones  depleted 
during  her  previous  lactation  and  it  is  the  period  when  the  bone 
development  of  the  foetus  is  going  on  most  rapidly.  The  legume 
hay  will  furnish  lots  of  lime  and  the  grain  mixture  is  rich  in 
phosphorus.  The  question  is  whether  the  minerals  so  supplied 
constitute  the  maximum  the  cow  can  assimilate  or  whether  a 
further  addition  would  mean  a  greater  storage  in  the  bones.  So  far 
as  we  know  no  breeder  had  made  a  practice  of  adding  minerals  at 
this  time.  We  should  like  to  see  it  tried  and  suggest  that  two  per 
cent  of  steamed  bone  meal  be  added  to  the  grain  mixture. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  worth  while  to  try  to  increase  the  assimila- 
tion of  lime  and  phosphorus  at  this  time  by  adding  some  green  or 
specially  cured  feed  to  the  ration,  or  even  a  little  cod  liver  oil  to 
furnish  the  vitamine  concerned.  This  point  has  not  been  settled 
absolutely  by  experiment.  If  the  cow  were  on  pasture  this 
would  take  care  of  itself.  In  winter  this  would  need  to  be  accom- 
plished by  specially  curing  some  alfalfa  or  other  leaf}r  roughage  so 
as  to  preserve  its  powers  of  increasing  the  assimilation  of  lime  and 
phosphorus  as  described  in  paragraph  13.  If  cod  liver  oil  is  used  for 
this  purpose,  feed  one-half  pint  per  week  as  a  drench  or  with  a 
sjTinge.  There  is  no  question  about  the  advantage  of  maximum 
storage  of  these  minerals.  Any  increase  beyond  that  made  possible 
by  the  ordinary  fitting  ration  would  probably  not  affect  a  short- 
time  test  but  it  might  well  aid  a  cow  to  hold  up  on  a  long-distance 
record,  in  view  of  our  knowledge  that  the  bones  are  gradually  de- 
pleted during  the  lactation  period.  At  least  it  would  constitute 
excellent  insurance  from  the  standpoint  of  the  animal's  health;  for 
an  undue  depletion  of  the  bones  due  to  a  year  of  forced  production 
might  easily  have  a  harmful  effect  on  vigor  and  later  productivity. 


FEEDING   FOR   OFFICIAL   RECORDS  53 

The  animal  should  have  plenty  of  good,  clean  water,  not  too 
cold.  If  she  cannot  have  access  to  it  at  all  times,  she  should  be 
watered  three  or  four  times  a  day.  The  picture  of  Glista  Ernestine, 
page  50,  illustrates  a  well  fitted  cow.  This  picture  was  taken  just 
a  day  or  two  before  she  calved.   She  made  a  30-pound  record. 

90.  Attention  at  calving  time.— A  week  or  ten  days  before 
calving  the  cow  should  be  placed  in  the  quarters  she  is  to  occupy 
during  the  test.  At  this  time  the  grain  ration  should  be  reduced. 
Constipation  must  be  avoided.  For  this  purpose  the  laxative 
feeds  in  the  grain  ration  may  be  increased  if  necessary.  Often  a 
purgative  may  need  to  be  given,  such  as  one  pound  of  epsom  salts 
or  one  quart  of  linseed  oil.  Attention  here  will  largely  obviate 
the  danger  of  udder  troubles.  If  the  udder  becomes  caked  or 
swollen  it  should  be  treated  by  rubbing  as  we  have  explained  in 
paragraph  16.  Keeping  the  bowels  loose  and  cutting  down  on  the 
roughage  a  day  or  two  before  calving  will  do  much  to  prevent 
trouble  at  parturition. 

91.  Increasing  the  feed.— For  the  first  few  days  after  calving 
the  cow  should  receive  only  a  limited  amount  of  food  and  it  should 
be  laxative.  After  the  fourth  day  if  she  is  coming  on  all  right,  the 
feed  can  be  rapidly  increased  to  that  being  received  before  freshen- 
ing. Milk  fever  is  always  a  possibility  following  calving  and  high 
producers  are  especially  subject  to  it.  (15  to  18) 

Feeding  for  Short-Time  Records 

Many  think  of  successful  feeding  for  records  as  being  based  on  a 
special  manipulation  of  the  cow  by  some  secret  process.  It  does 
seem  like  a  secret  process  to  the  beginner  but  the  key  to  the  secret 
is  experience,  a  keen  knowledge  of  animals  and  the  development 
of  skill.  No  one  can  succeed  merely  by  following  directions.  Each 
animal  must  be  treated  somewhat  differently  for  best  results  and 
it  is  in  the  proper  modification  of  the  methods  of  feeding  and 
management  from  day  to  day  according  to  the  behavior  of  the 
animal  that  the  skillfulness  of  the  feeder  is  all-important. 

92.  Cool  weather  the  best.— Short-time  records  are  almost 
always  made  during  the  cool  months  because  the  animal  will  eat 


54 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


a  much  larger  amount  of  concentrates  during  this  period.  During 
the  test  period  the  cow  is  fed  and  milked  four  times  a  day.  It  will 
take  her  some  time  to  get  adjusted  to  this  and  thus  it  should 
be  started  right  after  calving,  although  a  considerable  time  may 
elapse  before  the  period  of  maximum  production  is  reached. 
On  the  average  the  time  of  highest  production  is  three  weeks 


Agassiz  Segis  May  Echo  41302  (Canadian  Herd  Book.) 
World's  Champion  in  yearly  butter  fat  production.     Her  yearly  record  is 
30,886  pounds  of  milk,  1345  pounds  of  butter  fat.    Owned  by  Dominion  Ex- 
perimental Farms,  Agassiz,  B.  C. 

after  calving.  It  may  be  earlier.  Watch  for  it.  The  cow  is 
carried  through  until  the  feeder  is  satisfied  that  she  has  made  her 
maximum  record.  The  production  during  any  consecutive  seven 
days  during  this  period  may  be  taken  as  the  official  record.  The 
breeder  may  report  a  longer  period  than  seven  days  if  desired. 
Many  30-and  60-day  records  have  been  reported.  The  record 
period  may  start  at  any  milking  but  not  before  the  morning  of  the 
seventh  day  after  calving. 


FEEDING   FOR  OFFICIAL  RECORDS  55 

On  short-time  test  cows  are  fed  all  they  will  eat,  but  this  must 
be  done  with  great  care  particularly  as  regards  the  concentrates. 
After  the  cow  is  back  on  the  same  amount  of  feed  received  before 
calving,  the  grain  ration  must  be  increased  gradually  thereafter. 
It  is  best  to  increase  it  by  one  or  two  pounds  on  a  given  day  and 
then  watch  the  results  for  a  day.  If  the  animal  does  not  clean  up 
the  increased  amount  readily  a  reduction  should  be  made,  or  at 
least  no  further  increase  should  be  added  until  the  cow  is  cleaning 
up  what  she  is  already  getting.  It  is  imperative  that  the  animal 
be  not  allowed  to  go  off  feed.  Again  the  increases  must  be  stopped 
as  soon  as  they  fail  to  give  a  response  in  increased  milk  production. 
Proceeding  in  this  careful  manner  it  is  quite  possible  to  get  the 
animal  to  eating  20  to  25  and  even  more  pounds  of  concentrates 
daily.  Any  increase  above  20  pounds  should  be  made  at  a  slow 
rate,  say  one-fourth  to  one-half  pound  daily.  This  crowding  of  the 
cow  on  rich  feeds  must  be  done  with  extreme  care  not  only  for  the 
success  of  the  test  but  also  from  the  standpoint  of  the  animal's 
health.  Many  valuable  animals  have  been  spoiled  for  later 
production  by  lack  of  skill  here. 

93.  The  grain  mixture. — There  are  a  large  variety  of  grain 
mixtures  that  have  been  used  with  success  as  shown  by  the 
accounts  of  how  our  cows  with  high  records  have  been  fed.  How- 
ever, all  these  mixtures  have  many  points  in  common.  They  are 
made  up  of  a  variety  of  palatable  feeds  with  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  bulky  and  laxative  ones.  The  following  feeds  occur  most 
frequently  in  such  mixtures :  wheat  bran,  linseed  oil  meal,  ground 
oats,  gluten  feed,  hominy,  distillers'  grains  and  cottonseed  meal. 
If  one  should  make  up  such  a  ration  from  the  above  feeds  as  would 
furnish  23  to  25  per  cent  of  protein  and  weigh  about  one  pound 
to  the  quart,  he  should  have  a  good  mixture. 

The  following  mixture  has  been  used  with  good  results: 

200  lbs.  distillers'  dried  grains  200  lbs.  hominy 

200  lbs.  wheat  bran  100  lbs.  linseed  oil  meal 

100  lbs.  gluten  feed  12  lbs.  salt 

100  lbs.  ground  oats  12  lbs.  charcoal 


56  BETTER  DAIRY   FARMING 

Some  feeders  prefer  not  to  put  salt  in  the  mixture  but  to  feed  it 
regularly  or  have  it  constantly  before  the  animal.  Distillers'  grains 
is  one  of  the  best  feeds  for  test  cows  but  is  not  as  available  as 
formerly.  A  satisfactory  mixture  without  distillers'  grains  could 
be  made  up  as  follows: 

200  lbs.  wheat  bran 

200  lbs.  gluten  feed 

100  lbs.  ground  oats 

200  lbs.  hominy 

150  lbs.  oil  meal 

150  lbs.  cottonseed  meal 
The  salt  and  charcoal  could  be  added  if  desired.   It  is  not  probable 
that  the  addition  of  lime  or  phosphorus  would  have  any  effect  on 
production  during  a  short-time  test.    If  desired,  we  would  suggest 
the  addition  of  one  per  cent  of  steamed  bone  meal. 

94.  Vary  the  ration  for  each  cow. — Of  course,  in  selecting 
any  ration  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  may  be  desirable  to 
vary  it  according  to  the  tastes  of  the  animal.  Frequently,  it  is  a 
good  thing  to  change  the  ration  entirely  for  a  feed  or  two  and 
reduce  the  amount  when  an  animal  shows  a  tendency  to  go  off 
feed  due  to  over-crowding.  The  fitting  ration  we  have  given  will 
prove  satisfactory  for  this  purpose.  (87)  The  sudden  change  and 
reduction  will  help  bring  the  animal's  appetite  back.  Even  when 
there  is  no  tendency  to  go  off  feed  such  a  change  will  frequently 
be  found  worth  while.  Here  no  reduction  in  amount  is  called  for. 
There  is  usually  some  feeding  period  during  the  day  at  which  the 
cow  eats  her  ration  less  readily — generally  it  is  the  noon  feeding. 
This  is  the  time  for  a  change. 

95.  Roots  and  succulence. — Roots  are  a  necessary  feed  for 
the  cow  on  test.  A  much  larger  amount  of  grain  can  be  fed  with 
safety  where  roots  are  fed.  Beets  or  mangels  are  preferred.  The 
''Detroit  Red"  table  beet  and  the  "Norbiton  Giant"  or  the 
" Golden  Tankard"  mangel  are  satisfactory  varieties.  It  is 
customary  to  slice  the  roots  and  feed  the  grain  on  them  while  the 
cow  is  being  milked.  Use  about  three  pounds  of  beets  for  every 
pound  of  grain.   In  the  absence  of  roots,  beet  pulp  soaked  in  water 


FEEDING   FOR   OFFICIAL   RECORDS  57 

may  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  two  pounds  of  dry  pulp  to  three 
pounds  of  grain.  The  pulp  may  also  be  soaked  in  molasses  diluted 
with  warm  water.  Use  one-half  pint  of  molasses  to  a  feeding. 
Many  use  a  little  molasses  in  the  test  ration  because  it  is  palatable 
and  laxative.  The  molasses  may  cause  scouring  in  which  case  it 
must  be  discontinued.  (439) 

96.  The  hay  and  silage. — For  roughage  alfalfa  hay  seems  to 
have  the  preference.  Clover  hay  will  also  prove  satisfactory,  but 
good  results  cannot  be  expected  with  poor  roughage.  The  cow 
may  receive  all  the  hay  she  will  clean  up  after  she  has  consumed 
all  the  grain  it  seems  wise  to  feed  her.  The  amount  of  silage  fed 
should  be  limited,  or  may  be  eliminated  entirely,  unless  the  animal 
shows  a  special  liking  for  it.  Succulence  is  better  provided  with 
beets  or  beet  pulp,  as  a  large  consumption  of  silage  means  a  less 
consumption  of  grain.  We  suggest  15  pounds  per  day  or  even  less 
as  a  limit  for  the  silage. 

The  stall  should  be  well  ventilated,  but  free  from  drafts.  The 
temperature  should  be  around  50°  F.  Regularity  in  feeding  and 
milking  are  essential.  The  latter  should  be  done  by  the  same  man 
throughout  the  test.  When  a  cow  is  being  forced  to  her  utmost  it 
takes  but  a  little  thing  to  upset  her  and  slow  her  down.  Therefore, 
she  must  be  carefully  and  constantly  watched  that  no  detail  of 
care  which  may  add  to  her  comfort  and  content  may  be  neglected. 
The  experienced  and  skillful  feeder  realizes  these  things  and  he 
gets  the  records. 

Feeding  for  Long-Time  Records 

The  general  system  of  feeding  for  a  year's  record  is  similar  to 
that 'described  for  the  short-time  test  but  the  animal  cannot  be 
forced  as  much.  Relatively  less  grain  and  relatively  more  roughage 
are  fed.  The  cow  is  frequently  milked  only  three  times  a  day 
instead  of  four.  This,  of  course,  means  adjusting  the  feeding 
accordingly. 

97.  The  grain  mixture. — The  same  grain  mixtures  as  were 
recommended  for  the  short-time  periods  are  satisfactory.  However, 
over  the  year's  period  the  watchful  feeder  will  modify  the  mixture 


58  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

frequently  as  the  cow  tires  of  it  or  of  some  particular  feed.  Of 
course,  the  animal  must  have  salt  regularly  either  in  the  grain 
mixture  or  separately.  We  should  also  be  inclined  to  add  to  the 
grain  mixture  one  or  two  per  cent  of  one  of  the  sources  of  lime  and 
phosphorus. 

There  must  be  plenty  of  first  quality  clover  or  alfalfa  available 
throughout  the  year.  Due  to  the  scarcity  and  cost  of  beets,  silage 
may  be  the  main  reliance  for  succulence  and  the  cow  should 
receive  the  best  to  be  had.  Of  course,  beets  should  be  used  in  so 
far  as  available.  Fed  with  the  grain,  they  mean  a  greater  con- 
sumption with  less  danger  of  the  cow  going  off  feed.  Beet  pulp, 
soaked  in  water  to  which  molasses  is  added,  may  be  used  in  place 
of  roots. 

Assuming  that  the  record  period  is  to  begin  as  soon  as  the  cow 
strikes  her  gait  in  a  given  lactation  period  she  should  be  gradually 
changed  to  the  test  ration,  following  calving,  as  we  have  suggested 
in  feeding  for  the  short-time  test.  However,  she  should  not  be 
.crowded  as  much  on  grain  and  should  receive  relatively  more 
roughage.  The  secret  of  successful  feeding  over  the  long  period 
is  to  secure  maximum  consumption  without  the  animal  going 
off  feed.  This  means  that  at  all  times  the  amount  of  feed  must  be 
sufficiently  limited  to  keep  the  appetite  keen.  The  feeding  for  a 
long-time  record  should  really  follow  closely  the  suggestions  we 
have  given  in  Chapter  II  for  feeding  during  the  lactation  period, 
paying  especial  attention  to  the  quality  of  feed,  the  condition  and 
attitude  of  the  animal  and  the  other  details  of  individual  care  we 
have  mentioned  in  connection  with  short-time  tests. 

98.  Use  of  pasture  in  long-time  records. — The  pasture 
season  presents  a  special  problem.  Many  feeders  keep  the  animal 
in  the  barn  all  summer,  aside  from  letting  her  out  for  short  periods 
for  exercise  when  the  weather  is  suitable.  Others  plan  that  the 
cow  shall  secure  considerable  feed  from  pasture  by  turning  her 
out  during  the  cooler  parts  of  the  day.  In  sections  of  the  country 
where  the  summers  are  not  hot  it  is  the  custom  of  many  to  keep 
the  animal  continuously  on  pasture  when  not  too  cold  or  wet. 
The  point  is  that  the  animal  on  test  must  not  be  subjected  to 


FEEDING   FOR  OFFICIAL  RECORDS 


59 


cold,  rainy  weather  or  to  heat  and  flies.  If  pasture  means  these 
disadvantages  it  is  preferable  for  her  to  remain  inside.  We  favor 
turning  the  cow  out  so  that  she  will  have  the  advantage  of  as  much 
of  the  succulence  of  pasture  as  weather  conditions  will  allow, 
provided  the  flies  are  not  bothersome. 

If  the  cow  is  turned  out  regularly  for  sufficient  periods  during 
the  day  to  receive  a  considerable  amount  of  feed  from  pasture 


Countess  Prue  43785 
Guernsey  world's  record  in  butter  fat.    Yearly  record  18626.9  pounds  of 
milk,  1103.28  pounds  of  butter  fat.   Owned  by  F.  L.  Howes,  Groton,  Mass. 

it  must  be  remembered  that  the  change  from  stable  to  pasture 
feeding  must  be  a  gradual  one.  The  ration  fed  in  the  barn  should 
be  gradually  decreased  in  amount  during  the  first  week  on  pasture. 
Even  on  the  best  pasture  the  cow  should  continue  to  receive  some 
grain  and  hay  and  perhaps  some  silage  also,  depending  on  for  how 
long  a  period  during  the  day  she  is  turned  out.  Of  course,  as  the 
pasture  commences  to  fail  the  feeding  of  grain,  hay  and  silage  must 
be  increased.  This  may  be  the  period,  however,  that  it  will  be 
advisable  to  keep  the  animal  in  the  barn,  aside  from  short  periods 
out  for  exercise,  in  which  case  the  full  ration  of  stable  feeding  should 


60  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

be  resumed.  For  the  cow  kept  in  the  barn  during  the  summer  or  a 
considerable  portion  of  it,  a  succession  of  soilage  crops  will  afford  a 
substitute  for  pasture  and  furnish  a  welcome  change  from  the 
silage  of  winter  feeding.    (386) 

99.  Comfort  and  regularity. — The  cow  must  be  kept  as 
comfortable  as  possible  at  all  times.  This  means  moderately  warm, 
dry  quarters  in  winter  and  cool  quarters  as  possible  during  summer. 
Be  sure  to  use  a  fly  spray  during  the  summer.  Do  not  forget  to 
provide  plenty  of  good  water  at  all  times.  The  cow  should  have 
some  exercise  every  day,  either  by  being  turned  out  in  a  yard  when 
the  weather  is  suitable,  or  having  the  run  of  a  shed,  or  through 
some  other  means. 

Regularity  of  feeding  and  milking  are  essential.  The  milking 
should  be  done  by  the  same  man  in  so  far  as  possible.  r^he  most 
careful  and  considerate  treatment  will  be  repaid  many  times  in 
the  larger  production  secured. 


CHAPTER  VII 
HOW  TO   BUY   FEEDS 

The  object  in  buying  feeds  is  to  select  those  which  at  the  least 
cost  will  form  a  satisfactory  ration  with  the  home-grown  materials. 
By  a  satisfactory  ration  we  mean  one  that  will  produce  the 
maximum  amount  of  milk.  It  must  have  adequate  protein  and  be 
highly  digestible.  It  must  furnish  the  proper  bulk  and  variety  and 
be  palatable.  These  factors  have  been  discussed  previously.  If 
we  overlook  them  in  trying  to  get  a  cheap  ration,  any  money  saved 
may  be  lost  many  times  in  lessened  production. 

100.  Digestible  part  valuable  part.— When  a  feed  is  taken 
into  the  body,  a  certain  part  is  digested  and  absorbed  while  the 
remainder  is  excreted  in  the  manure.  Of  course,  only  that  part 
which  is  digested  is  of  use  to  the  animal;  thus,  in  buying  feeds 
we  want  to  get  the  maximum  amount  of  digestible  material  for  our 
money.  In  fact,  the  only  real  way  to  tell  what  feeds  are  cheapest 
is  to  compare  them  on  the  basis  of  their  digestible  material.  To  do 
this  we  compute  the  total  digestible  nutrients  of  each  feed.  By 
actual  trials  with  animals,  the  amount  of  digestible  protein, 
digestible  fiber,  digestible  carbohydrates  and  digestible  fat  has 
been  determined  for  every  common  feed.  If  we  multiply  the  diges- 
tible fat  by  2.25  and  add  to  this  product  the  other  digestible  nu- 
trients, we  obtain  the  total  digestible  nutrients.  The  fat  is  multi- 
plied by  2.25  because  it  furnishes  2.25  times  as  much  feed  energy 
as  the  other  nutrients.  The  total  digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds 
of  each  of  the  common  feeds  are  shown  in  Table  I  in  the  appendix. 

101.  Cost  of  digestible  nutrients.— Now,  let  us  illustrate  the 
buying  of  feeds  on  the  basis  of  total  digestible  nutrients.  Suppose 
a  feed  dealer  has  the  following  feeds  available  at  the  prices  named : 

Corn  meal $36 . 50  Standard  middlings ...  $35 .  05 

Ground  oats 38 . 60  Flour  middlings 38 . 80 

Corn  gluten  feed 49 .  80  Wheat  mixed  feed 36 .  30 

Hominy  feed 38 .05  Cottonseed  meal,  43%.  58 .  05 

Wheat  bran 35 .  05  Linseed  oil  meal 59 .  05 

61 


62 


BETTER  DAIRY  FARMING 


What  we  really  want  to  know  is  their  cost  in  terms  of  total  di- 
gestible nutrients.  Thus,  we  will  calculate  the  cost  of  100  pounds 
of  total  digestible  nutrients  in  each  feed  and  rearrange  them  on 
that  basis.  We  figure  the  total  digestible  nutrients  in  a  ton  by 
multiplying  the  amount  in  100  pounds,  as  shown  in  Table  I  in  the 
appendix,  by  20.  By  dividing  the  cost  per  ton  by  the  total  diges- 
tible nutrients  per  ton,  and  multiplying  the  quotient  by  100,  we 
get  the  cost  of  100  pounds  of  total  digestible  nutrients. 


Cost  per 
ton 

Total  dig. 
nutrients 
per  ton 

Cost  of  100  lbs. 
total  dig. 
nutrients 

Corn  meal 

Hominv  feed                

$36.50 
38.05 
38.80 
35.05 
36.30 
38.60 
35.05 
49.80 
58.05 
59.05 

1676 
1692 
1564 
1386 
1340 
1408 
1218 
1614 
1564 
1558 

$2.18 
2.25 

Flour  middlings 

Standard  middlings 

Wheat  mixed  feed 

2.48 
2.53 
2.71 

Ground  oats 

2.74 

Wheat  bran 

2.88 

Gluten  feed                

3.09 

Cottonseed  meal,  43% 

3.71 
3.80 

102.  What  to  buy. — Now,  we  are  ready  to  decide  what  to  buy. 
Though  hominy  costs  $1.55  a  ton  more  than  corn  meal,  it  is  nearly 
as  cheap  in  terms  of  total  digestible  nutrients  and  we  prefer  it 
because  it  is  bulky  and  a  better  general  feed  for  the  dairy  ration. 
However,  we  cannot  make  our  mixture  entirely  of  hominy  even 
though  it  is  the  cheapest  feed  shown,  for  we  must  have  variety  and 
adequate  protein  content.  The  protein  content  will  depend  on  the 
roughage.  Suppose  we  have  mixed  hay  containing  50  per  cent  of 
clover.  We  should  then  select  a  grain  mixture  containing  around 
20  per  cent  of  protein.  This  will  require  a  considerable  amount  of 
one  of  the  high-protein  feeds.  Here  corn  gluten  feed  is  the  cheap- 
est. However,  if  we  add  much  gluten  we  will  not  be  watching  out 
for  variety,  since  we  have  already  selected  one  corn  feed  in  hominy. 
Therefore,  we  had  better  put  in  some  cottonseed.  It  costs  much 
more  than  gluten  in  terms  of  total  digestible  nutrients,  but  it  runs 
nearly  twice  as  high  in  protein  so  we  will  not  need  to  buy  much 
more  than  half  as  much  to  get  the  protein  needed.    Finally,  let 


HOW  TO  BUY  FEEDS  63 

us  add  one  other  feed  for  further  variety.  Wheat  bran  would  be 
very  satisfactory  but  it  is  quite  expensive.  Flour  middlings  are  the 
cheapest  of  the  remaining  feeds  but  they  are  rather  heavy  for  the 
dairy  ration.  Let  us  take  wheat  mixed  feed.  The  next  thing  is  to 
put  together  the  feeds  so  as  to  give  the  proper  protein  content.  One 
can  set  down  a  trial  formula  and  then  compute  its  protein  from 
Table  I  in  the  appendix.   How  this  may  be  done  is  shown  below: 

500  lbs.  hominy 500  x  10.6%   =  53.00  lbs.  protein 

200  lbs.  wheat  mixed  feed 200  x  16.8%   =  33.60  lbs.  protein 

100  lbs.  gluten  feed 100  x  25.4%   =  25.40  lbs.  protein 

200  lbs.  cottonseed  meal,  43% 200  x  44.1%   =  88.20  lbs.  protein 

1000  lbs.  will  contain 200.2    lbs.  protein 

200.24-1000=20.02%  protein 

This  trial  happened  to  come  out  exactly  20  per  cent.  Had  it 
come  out  one  or  two  per  cent  below,  the  ration  would  still  have 
been  satisfactory.  A  wider  variation  than  this  would  have  caused 
us  to  modify  the  mixture  somewhat. 

103.  How  to  buy. — We  will  assume  that  a  man  will  make  up 
for  use  in  his  herd  a  mixture  similar  to  the  above  which  will  be 
composed  of  the  four  common  feeds,  wheat  bran,  hominy,  gluten 
feed,  and  linseed  oil  meal.  Such  a  mixture  to  run  20  per  cent 
total  crude  protein  would  be: 

%  total     Lbs.  total 
Lbs.      protein      protein 

Wheat  bran 400  16.0  64.0 

Hominy 200  10.6  21.2 

Gluten  feed 200  25.4  50.8 

Linseed  meal 200  33.9  67.8 

1000  lbs.  203.8 

100  lbs.  20.4 

This  mixture  would  be  a  suitable  one  to  go  with  red  clover  hay  or 
with  a  mixed  hay  containing  more  than  one-half  clover. 

Now,  in  buying  feeds  for  this  mixture  we  will  consider  the  case 
where  a  man  will  buy  these  feeds  separately  and  mix  them  him- 
self. The  case  of  the  purchase  of  proprietary  feeds  and  feeds  pur- 
chased co-operatively  is  treated  in  paragraphs  113,  114,  115  and 
Chapter  VIII. 


64  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

104.  Ways  in  which  feed  can  be  bought.— Leaving  out  of 
the  discussion  now  the  question  of  buying  feed  co-operatively,  there 
are  several  ways  that  feed  can  be  purchased:  the  feed  can  be 
bought  of  a  local  dealer,  100  pounds  at  a  time,  on  credit;  100 
pounds  at  a  time  for  cash;  a  ton  at  a  time  for  credit  or  for  cash;  or 
the  number  of  tons  of  each  kind  may  be  ordered  through  the  dealer 
in  advance  for  future  delivery  and  cash  paid  on  delivery. 

105.  Buy  for  cash. — The  place  to  buy  money  is  at  the  bank. 
That  is  what  banks  are  for.  They  will  keep  your  money  and  pay 
you  interest  on  it  or  they  will  sell  you  some  money  to  use  for  a 
time.  The  thing  to  do  is  to  establish  a  line  of  credit  with  your 
banker  and  learn  to  use  that  line  of  credit  properly.  What  we 
mean  by  a  "line  of  credit"  is  to  arrange  with  the  banker  with  whom 
you  have  your  checking  account  to  allow  you  a  certain  amount  of 
credit  on  notes  signed  by  you  and  secured  by  collateral  security 
such  as  bonds.  Or,  the  note  may  be  endorsed  by  your  wife  and  the 
credit  extended  to  you  by  your  banker  upon  the  deposit  with  him  of 
a  definite  statement  of  the  condition  of  your  finances  which  shows 
that  your  business  is  in  such  condition  that  he  would  be  safe  in 
extending  to  you  a  certain  amount  of  credit.  Then  when  you  need 
the  money  you  can  get  it  and  pay  cash  for  the  feed. 

106.  Expensive  to  buy  in  small  quantities. — It  costs  too 
much  to  buy  a  bag  of  feed  at  a  time.  The  only  way  to  buy  feed  is 
to  order  it  for  future  delivery  at  the  time  when  you  think  the  price 
is  right,  take  it  off  the  car  when  it  comes,  pay  the  dealer  cash  for 
it  at  the  wholesale  price  agreed  upon  at  the  time  the  feed  was 
ordered,  plus  a  small  margin  to  the  dealer  for  doing  the  business. 
That  margin  should  not  be  more  than  one  dollar  a  ton  over  the 
wholesale  price  to  the  dealer  if  you  pay  cash  and  take  the  feed  off 
the  car  when  the  dealer  calls  you  up  and  tells  you  to  come  and  get 
it.  So  long  as  you  do  not  yourself  buy  feed  in  carloads  you  must 
expect  to  pay  for  the  service  rendered  by  the  dealer  and  the 
amount  of  profit  to  which  he  is  entitled  is  determined  by  the  service 
he  renders.  But  there  is  nothing  secret  about  it.  You  should 
know  through  your  dairy  paper  about  what  the  wholesale  price  of 
each  feed  is.    Then  it  is  a  matter  of  a  business  deal  between  you 


HOW  TO   BUY  FEEDS  65 

and  your  dealer  as  to  what  service  he  shall  render  and  what  you 
shall  pay  for  that  service.  Remember  all  the  way  through  that  the 
thing  that  really  talks  is  the  cash. 

107.  Order  in  advance. — If  you  order  in  advance  the  dealer  can 
know  how  much  to  buy  and  if  you  have  the  right  relations  with 
him  he  can  buy  at  the  right  time  and  price  for  future  delivery. 
Feed  is  usually  the  cheapest  between  May  1  and  October  1  each 
year,  the  so-called  " grass  price"  usually  obtaining  in  these 
months.  We  will  illustrate  this  in  the  case  of  the  four  feeds  chosen 
above.  All  prices  quoted  are  on  the  basis  of  the  Utica,  New  York, 
freight  rate  from  western  points  in  carloads,  wholesale,  for  cash, 
draft  attached  to  bill  of  lading,  which  means  that  the  draft  must  be 
paid  before  the  car  can  be  unloaded. 

108.  Time  to  buy  wheat  bran. — The  following  little  table 
shows  the  highest  and  lowest  prices  per  ton  in  each  year  named  for 
the  ten  years  1912  to  1922.  We  have  broken  the  year  to  run  from 
May  1  to  April  30  of  the  next  year  because  prices  usually  begin  to 
break  in  the  feed  market  about  April  1. 


Year 

I 

jowest  price 

Highest  price 

1912-13 

April. 

,  1913, 

$21.15 

May, 

1912, 

$27.65 

1913-14 

May, 

1913, 

21.15 

Feb., 

1914, 

28.15 

1914-15 

July, 

1914, 

23.15 

Feb., 

1915, 

28.35 

1915-16 

Nov., 

1915, 

22.85 

Apr., 

1915, 

25.85 

1916-17 

June, 

1916, 

22.85 

Feb., 

1917, 

42.85 

1917-18 

June, 

1917, 

32.85 

Dec. 

,  1917, 

46.00 

1918-19 

July, 

1918, 

31.20 

Jan., 

1919, 

56.80 

1919-20 

June, 

1919, 

41.80 

Apr., 

1920, 

57.00 

1920-21 

Apr., 

1921, 

20.40 

June, 

1920, 

64.20 

1921-22 

Oct., 

1921, 

21.35 

Feb., 

1922, 

35.45 

1922-23 

Aug., 

1922, 

22.55 

Mar. 

,  1923, 

37.00 

A  glance  at  this  table  shows  that  bran  is  cheaper  as  a  rule  in  the 
summer  months  and  that  a  normal  summer  price  is  $20  to  $23. 

109.  Hominy. — The  hominy  table  shows  that  the  best  price  on 
this  feed  is  likely  to  come  later  in  the  year  after  the  new  corn 
comes  on  the  market,  although  the  low  price  on  this  feed  varies  all 
over  the  year.  The  clearest  thing  in  the  table  is  that  $20  to  $25  is 
about  the  price  to  pay  most  years. 


66  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 


Year 

Lowest  price 

Highest  price 

1912-13 

Mar., 

1913, 

S21.25 

Sept., 

1912, 

831.00 

1913-14 

May, 

1913, 

24.00 

Sept., 

1913, 

30.70 

1914-15 

Nov., 

1914, 

27.97 

Sept, 

1914, 

33.41 

191.5-16 

Nov., 

1915, 

27.97 

Sept, 

1915, 

33.00 

1916-17 

May, 

1916, 

28.50 

April, 

1917, 

56.05 

1917-18 

Nov., 

1917, 

54.66 

Mar, 

1918, 

67.25 

1918-19 

Mar., 

1919, 

53.83 

Aug, 

1918, 

66.50 

1919-20 

Dec, 

1919, 

57.75 

Aug, 

1919, 

78.83 

1920-21 

Apr., 

1920, 

28.65 

July, 

1920, 

76.20 

1921-22 

Apr., 

1922, 

25.92 

June, 

1921, 

31.90 

1922-23 

May, 

1922, 

26.00 

Dec, 

1922, 

37.75 

110.  Gluten  feed. — The  lowest  price  on  gluten  feed  comes 
quite  consistently  along  in  late  spring  and  early  summer.  If  you 
buy  at  this  time  at  a  price  between  .$30  and  S35  you  are  fairly  safe 
that  it  will  not  go  higher.  It  is  not  at  all  likely  that  high-protein 
feeds  will  go  under  830  for  some  years. 


Year 

Lowest  price 

Highest  price 

1912-13 

April. 

,  1913, 

S24.05 

Jan., 

1913, 

$29.85 

1913-14 

May, 

1913, 

24.05 

Jan, 

1914, 

30.80 

1914-15 

Apr, 

1915, 

27.11 

Feb.: 

,  1915, 

31.61 

191.5-16 

Nov, 

1915, 

26.03 

Jan, 

1916, 

31.36 

1916-17 

May, 

1916, 

27.06 

Apr, 

1917, 

45.11 

1917-18 

June, 

1917, 

43.76 

Apr, 

,  1918, 

58.71 

1918-19 

June, 

1918, 

48.71 

Jan., 

1919, 

62.99 

1919-20 

May, 

1919, 

61.74 

Feb, 

1920, 

73.95 

1920-21 

Apr, 

1921, 

35.90 

June, 

,  1920, 

80.20 

1921-22 

Nov, 

1921, 

33.05 

Dec, 

,  1921, 

41.23 

1922-23 

July, 

1922, 

34.75 

Jan, 

1923, 

49.05 

111.  Oil  meal. — In  most  years  oil  meal  appears  to  be  cheapest 
along  in  the  spring  and  early  summer.  The  low  price  on  oil  meal 
appears  to  vary  around  S3 5  to  $40. 


Year 

Lowest  price 

Highest  price 

1912-13 

Apr,    1912, 

$29.50 

Mav,  1912, 

$39.00 

1913-14 

May,  1913, 

27.50 

Aug,  1913, 

35.50 

1914-15 

Oct,    1914, 

31.50 

Feb,  1915, 

42.00 

191.5-16 

Apr,   1916, 

33.00 

Dec,  1915, 

41.50 

1916-17 

May,  1916, 

31.50 

Dec,  1916, 

49.50 

1917-18 

June,    1917, 

49.50 

Dec,  1917, 

63.50 

1918-19 

May,  1918, 

60.50 

Jan,  1919, 

79.50 

1919-20 

April,  1920, 

71.50 

Aug,  1919, 

94.50 

1920-21 

Apr,    1921, 

35.90 

July,  1920, 

70.20 

1921-22 

May,  1921, 

35.85 

Mar,  1922, 

58.75 

1922-23 

Aug,  1922, 

42.10 

Dec,  1922, 

56.60 

112.    Saving  money. — A  study  of  these  tables  will  show  what 
we  have  tried  to  bring  out  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter.  Money 


HOW  TO   BUY   FEEDS  67 

will  be  saved  by  buying  for  cash  for  future  delivery.  Your  feed 
dealer  will  help  in  finding  out  the  proper  time  to  buy.  But  do  not 
leave  it  all  to  him.  Know  feeds  and  prices  and  form  your  own 
judgment  as  to  when  and  how  to  buy. 

113.  Proprietary  feeds. — Thus  far  we  have  been  thinking  of 
the  farmer  who  mixes  his  own  ration.  We  know  that  a  large  num- 
ber of  farmers  use  proprietary  feeds.  It  has  been  our  observation 
that  the  average  dairyman  can  mix  his  own  grain  ration  more 
cheaply  if  he  will  take  the  trouble  to  do  it.  In  so  doing,  he  has  the 
opportunity  of  making  it  up  to  fit  his  home-grown  feeds,  and  he  is 
surer  of  what  he  is  getting  than  he  is  if  he  tries  to  choose  from  the 
large  number  of  proprietary  feeds  on  the  market  which  do  not  have 
public  formulas. 

According  to  law  a  proprietary  feed  must  be  sold  under  a 
guaranteed  analysis,  and  in  most  states  the  ingredients  must  be 
stated.  However,  this  tells  the  farmer  nothing  as  to  how  much  of 
a  given  ingredient  is  present.  In  a  proprietary  feed  listing  six  or 
eight  or  more  ingredients  those  the  farmer  wants  most  may  or  may 
not  be  present  in  any  considerable  amount.  This  is  why  we  say 
that  such  a  feed  does  not  enable  the  farmer  to  get  what  he  wants  as 
well  as  though  he  mixes  his  own  ration.  Fortunately  manufacturers 
are  commencing  to  recognize  this  and  there  are  now  on  the  market 
certain  proprietary  feeds  with  "open  formulas" — that  is,  the 
amount  of  each  ingredient  is  stated.  We  believe  that  these  are  the 
kind  of  proprietary  feeds  that  should  be  bought  when  looking  for 
a  ready-mixed  feed.     (123,  124,  125) 

114.  Feeds  with  secret  formulas. — If  a  proprietary  feed  of 
unknown  formula  must  be  bought,  the  farmer  should  study  the  tag 
on  the  bag  before  buying.  Note  the  guarantee  to  see  whether  the 
protein  content  is  what  is  desired  and  that  the  fiber  content  is 
not  above  12  per  cent.  Study  the  list  of  ingredients.  Certain 
proprietary  feeds  contain  materials  which  are  so  low  grade  that 
the  cow  can  make  no  use  of  them  for  milk  production.  Many  feeds 
contain  ingredients  which  are  about  equal  in  value  to  hay  and  the 
farmer  cannot  afford  to  buy  such  unless  they  are  charged  into  the 
feed  at  a  price  no  higher  than  it  would  cost  him  to  buy  or  raise  hay 


68 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


at  home.  Unfortunately  when  the  farmer  does  not  know  how  much 
of  this  low-grade  material  is  in  the  feed  he  cannot  tell  whether  he 
is  paying  a  fair  price  for  it  or  not.  Thus,  in  buying  a  feed  of  un- 
known formula  it  is  safest  to  purchase  one  containing  high-grade 
ingredients  only. 


sfGX.E% 

G.  L.  F.  MILK  MAKER 

ANALYSIS 

Protein 24% 

Fat 5% 

Fiber  N.0T.0VER 9% 

INGREDIENTS 

Corn  Distillers'  Grains,  Corn  Gluten  Feed, 
Cottonseed  Meal  43  9c,  Oil  Meal,  Stan- 
dard Wheat  Bran  (with  mill  ran  screen- 
ings), Standard  Wheat  Midds  (with  mill 
ran  scre£«ingv)»  Yellow  Hominy,  Ground 
Oats,  Molasses,  Peanut  Meal  40  7c,  Salt, 
Calcium    Carbonate. 

See  exact  amount  of  each  ingredient  per 
ton  on   other  side. 

MANUFACTURED  BY 

Co-operative  G.  L,  F.  Exchange,  Inc. 

BUFFALO.  N.  Y. 


<&> 

G.  L  F.  MILK  MAKER 

Distillers'  Grains 

200  Lbs. 

Gluten  Feed 

500    " 

Cottonseed  Meal  43% 

260    " 

Oii  Meal 

240    - 

Standard  Wheat  Bran 

200    " 

Standard  Wheat  Midds 

100    * 

Yellow  Hominy 

160    " 

Ground  Oats 

100    * 

Molasses 

100    " 

Peanut  Meal  40% 

100    " 

Salt 

20    u 

Calcium  Carbonate 

20    w 

2000  Lbs. 

The  G.L.F.  Seal  of  Qtjalmt 

The  open  formula  of  G.L.F.  Milkmaker.     The  tag  on  every  bag  tells  the 
story. 


Of  course  there  are  good  proprietary  feeds  of  unknown  formulas. 
There  are  many  such  feeds  that  have  enjoyed  a  good  market  for 
years  and  they  must  give  satisfaction  or  farmers  would  not  con- 
tinue to  buy  them.  Unfortunately  there  are  also  many  proprietary 
feeds  of  poor  quality  and  some  that  are  practically  worthless. 


HOW  TO   BUY  FEEDS  69 

It  is  therefore  difficult  except  on  the  basis  of  an  open  formula 
to  tell  a  farmer  how  to  select  and  use  a  proprietary  feed. 

115.  Feeds  with  public  formulas. — What  we  mean  by  a  feed 
with  a  public  formula  is  a  feed  sold  with  a  tag  attached  to  each  bag 
with  the  formula  by  which  the  feed  is  mixed  printed  on  the  tag. 
From  this  the  buyer  can  tell  not  only  from  what  ingredients  the 
feed  is  made  but  he  knows  exactly  how  much  of  each  ingredient  is 
used.  This  will  enable  one  to  compute  the  value  of  the  ready- 
mixed  feed  and  compare  it  with  what  he  can  do  in  home  mixing 
when  he  buys  the  separate  ingredients.  We  believe  that  all 
farmers  should  insist  on  having  public  formulas  printed  on  the 
tags  of  all  the  mixed  feeds  they  buy.  In  Chapter  VIII  we  will  show 
how  this  can  be  and  has  been  worked  out  successfully.  An  example 
of  a  feed  with  public  formula  is  G.L.F.  Milkmaker.  The  formula 
given  on  page  68  is  printed  on  the  tag  accompanying  every  bag  of 
G.L.F.  Milkmaker. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  CO-OPERATIVE  PURCHASE  AND  DISTRIBUTION 

OF  FEED 

In  order  to  get  feed  from  where  it  is  grown  or  manufactured 
to  our  barns,  a  series  of  operations  musj  take  place  which,  as  far 
as  making  the  feed  available  for  use  is  concerned,  are  as  essential 
as  the  production  of  the  feed  itself.  These  operations  include 
financing,  assembling  quantities  of  feed  at  points  of  origin,  grading 
it,  sacking  it,  transporting  it,  and  finally  distributing  it  locally. 
Of  late  farmers  have  had  a  feeling  that  they  themselves  could  per- 
form some  of  these  operations  and  a  large  number  of  co-operative 
corporations  have  been  organized. 

116.  Advantages  of  a  corporation. — All  corporations  are 
legal  entities.  They  derive  the  authority  for  their  existence  from 
the  state.  The  advantages  of  a  corporation  as  an  instrument  to 
conduct  business  are  several:  first,  through  it  individuals  may 
pool  their  capital;  second,  it  is  a  permanent  institution;  third,  it 
limits  personal  liability  through  assuming  a  personal  liability  of  its 
own;  and  finally,  it  provides  a  means  whereby  the  small  capitalist 
or  the  small  producer  may  invest  his  capital  and  secure  skilled 
management  of  it.  In  short,  the  corporation  is  a  useful  way  of 
concentrating  money  and  management  for  great  undertakings  that 
could  never  be  handled  by  individuals  because  of  their  great  size. 
At  the  same  time  it  provides  a  means  whereby  individuals  may  par- 
ticipate in  enterprises  without  endangering  their  personal  fortunes. 

117.  Character  of  co-operative  corporations. — In  the  ordi- 
nary business  corporation  money  rules;  men  vote  in  the  management 
of  the  corporation  in  proportion  to  the  shares  of  stock  tliat  they 
own.  In  the  case  of  the  co-operative  corporation,  it  is  a  generally 
recognized  principle  that  each  member  has  one  vote  regardless  of 
his  share  of  ownership  in  the  corporation. 

In  the  ordinary  form  of  business,  corporation  profits  that  accrue 
are  distributed  in  the  form  of  stock  dividends.   In  the  co-operative 

70 


PURCHASE  AND   DISTRIBUTION   OF  FEED       71 

form  the  usual  plan  is  to  distribute  profits  on  the  basis  of  patronage. 
Farmers  have  organized  co-operative  corporations  to  buy  and 
distribute  feed  quite  generally  during  the  past  few  years  and  with 
a  few  exceptions — probably  no  more  than  would  occur  in  connec- 
tion with  the  organization  and  operation  of  a  like  number  of 
business  corporations — these  companies  have  been  successful. 

To  begin  with,  the  character  of  the  corporation  is  such  that  it 
is  always  operated  in  the  interest  of  its  members.  Service  rather 
than  money-making  is  the  primary  aim  of  the  corporation  itself. 
This  means  that  it  is  used  to  get  feed  marketed  as  cheaply  as 
possible,  instead  of  trying  to  see  how  much  can  be  made  off  the 
various  marketing  operations.  Again,  since  the  men  who  own  it 
are  the  men  who  use  the  feed,  greater  attention  is  given  to  quality 
and  to  making  available  those  feeds  which  it  is  to  their  best  interest 
to  use. 

118.  Service  costs. — Despite  these  marked  advantages  in 
favor  of  co-operative  buying,  members  of  co-operative  corporations 
everywhere  should  remember  that  marketing  operations  cost 
money,  whether  performed  by  their  own  co-operative,  an  ordinary 
business  corporation,  or  a  private  individual;  and  that  the  lack  of 
good  business  management,  sufficient  working  capital,  or  the 
necessary  volume  of  business  may  so  handicap  the  co-operative 
that  it  becomes  the  most  expensive  method  of  buying  and  dis- 
tributing feed. 

119.  Examples  of  successful  co-operative  corporations. — 
Successful  co-operative  feed-buying  corporations  operating  over 
large  territories  are  the  Eastern  States  Farmers  Exchange,  with 
headquarters  at  Springfield,  Mass.;  the  Michigan  Farm  Bureau 
at  Lansing,  Mich.;  the  Pennsylvania  Farmers'  Co-operative  Feder- 
ation at  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  the  Co-operative  Grange  League  Fed- 
eration Exchange,  Inc.,  with  headquarters  at  Ithaca,  New  York. 
Operating  locally  are  hundreds  of  smaller  concerns;  in  fact,  in 
New  York  State  alone  there  are  reported  to  be  around  seventy- 
five  local  co-operatives  owning  and  operating  warehouses.  Two 
co-operatives,  the  G.L.F.  Exchange,  as  it  is  popularly  known,  and 
the  Adirondack  Farmers  Company,  will  be  described  in  some  detail. 


72  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

The  first  is  an  example  of  a  farmer-owned  corporation  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  and  wholesale  distribution  of  feed;  the  other 
operates  as  a  local  buying  and  distributing  agency.  Both  have 
been  successful  to  date  and  each  has  supplemented  the  other. 

120.  The  Co-operative  Grange  League  Federation  Ex- 
change, Inc. — This  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a  co-operative  corpora- 
tion developed  by  the  New  York  State  Grange,  the  Dairymen's 
League  Co-operative  Association,  Inc.,  and  the  New  York  State 
Farm  Bureau  Federation.  The  history  of  the  organization  of  the 
Exchange  is  about  as  follows: 

For  a  number  of  years  prior  to  1918  the  New  York  State  Grange 
had  attempted  through  various  agencies  to  purchase  farm  supplies 
for  its  members.  In  1918,  after  some  unfortunate  experiences,  its 
executive  committee  authorized  the  organization  of  a  co-operative 
stock  corporation,  the  stock  to  be  subscribed  by  Grange  members 
and  the  corporation  to  be  used  to  purchase  farm  supplies  for  the 
members  of  local  granges. 

The  authorized  capitalization  was  $100,000.  For  some  reason 
or  other,  only  about  $35,000  worth  of  stock  was  subscribed.  This 
corporation,  known  as  the  New  York  Grange  Exchange,  began 
operation,  and  during  1919  and  the  early  part  of  1920  did  a  fair 
volume  of  business. 

At  this  time,  due  to  war  conditions,  prices  were  rising  very  rapid- 
ly and  many  feed  manufacturers  and  local  dealers  were  taking 
advantage  of  the  situation  to  make  a  good  deal  of  money.  This 
condition  was  noticed  by  farmers  who  became  restive  and  who 
began  to  demand  through  their  organizations — the  Grange,  the 
Dairymen's  League,  and  the  State  Farm  Bureau  Federation — 
that  something  be  done  to  put  them  in  a  stronger  position.  Not 
only  were  those  engaged  in  marketing  feed  making  undue  profits, 
but  great  quantities  of  inferior  feed,  seed  and  fertilizer  were  being 
distributed. 

121.  The  New  York  State  Agricultural  Conference  Board. 
— The  executive  committees  of  the  leading  farm  organizations 
in  New  York  State  belong  to  a  body  known  as  the  Agricultural 
Conference  Board  which  serves  as  a  clearing  house  for  all  agri- 


PURCHASE  AND   DISTRIBUTION   OF  FEED        73 

cultural  matters.  At  meetings  of  the  Agricultural  Conference 
Board  during  the  spring  of  1920  the  need  of  some  sort  of  a  farmer- 
owned  co-operative  buying  corporation  was  discussed  frequently. 
Careful  thought  was  given  to  the  whole  matter  and  considerable 
investigation  was  done  by  special  committees  of  the  Board,  with 
the  result  that  it  was  finally  unanimously  agreed  by  all  members 
of  the  Board  to  unite  in  the  organization  of  a  purchasing  corpora- 


5  ■!.♦  t  J  I. 


The  Board  of  Directors  and  Manager  of  the 
Co-operative  G.L.F.  Exchange 
Typical  farmers  who  operate  the  Exchange  for  the  benefit  of  themselves 
and  other  farmers. 

tion  of  sufficient  size  to  insure  an  adequate  volume  of  business 
and  to  make  possible  the  employment  of  the  most  skilled  manage- 
ment available.  It  was  also  agreed  that  this  new  corporation  should 
purchase  the  assets  of  the  Grange  Exchange  and  begin  operations 
with  the  business  of  that  corporation. 

A  million-dollar  co-operative  stock  corporation  was  finally 
agreed  upon,  to  be  known  as  the  Co-operative  Grange  League 
Federation  Exchange,  Inc.  The  board  of  directors  was  made  up 
of  nine  members,  three  from  each  of  the  supporting  organizations. 
The  certificate  of  incorporation  was  filed  in  June,  1920,  and  the 


74  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

stock  in  shares  of  $5  each  offered  to  the  members  of  the  supporting 
organizations  during  the  same  month.  As  a  result  of  a  quick  and 
comprehensive  campaign  about  two-thirds  of  the  stock  was  sub- 
scribed and  the  Exchange  began  business  about  July  1,  1920. 

122.  The  feed  and  grain  department. — This  department  of 
the  Exchange  was  at  the  very  beginning  located  at  Buffalo,  New 
York,  where  a  fairly  large  mill  was  built  and  equipped.  This  de- 
partment early  began  the  manufacture  of  public  formula,  ready- 
mixed  rations  for  G.L.F.  members.  The  demand  for  these  rations 
soon  outgrew  the  Buffalo  plant  and  it  became  necessary  for  the 
Exchange  to  secure  additional  manufacturing  facilities. 

In  the  meantime,  coincident  with  the  development  of  the 
G.L.F.,  New  England  farmers  were  developing  the  Eastern  States 
Farmers  Exchange,  Michigan  farmers  the  Michigan  Farm  Bureau, 
and  Pennsylvania  farmers  the  Pennsylvania  Farmers'  Co-opera- 
tive Federation.  These  organizations  all  had  the  same  problems, 
among  them  the  manufacture  of  the  best  possible  dairy  and  poul- 
try rations. 

123.  Feeds  with  public  formulas. — The  managers  of  these 
farmers'  co-operative  corporations  early  in  1922  got  in  touch 
with  the  feeding  experts  of  the  eleven  eastern  agricultural  colleges 
and  invited  them  to  meet  and  agree  upon  the  best  possible  formulas 
for  dairy  rations  and  other  mixed  rations.  This  meeting  was  held 
in  Springfield  during  the  summer  of  1920. 

Probably  the  greatest  single  success  of  the  feed  department  of 
the  G.L.F.  has  come  through  the  manufacture  and  distribution  of 
the  G.L.F.  dairy  feeds,  particularly  of  G.L.F.  Milkmaker.  The 
formulas  of  the  G.L.F.  dairy  feeds  follow: 

G.L.F.  Milkmaker 

Pounds 

Distillers'  grains 200 

Gluten  feed 500 

Cottonseed  meal  43% 260 

Oil  meal  O.  P 240 

Std.  wheat  bran 200 

Std.  wheat  middlings 100 

Yellow  hominy 160 

Ground  oats 100 

Cane  molasses 100 


Peanut  meal  40% 

Pounds 

100 

Salt 

20 

Calcium  carbonate.. 

20 

2000 

Digestible  nutrients. 

1506 

Guarantee : 

Protein,  24%;  Fat, 

°/0i 

Fiber,  9%. 

PURCHASE   AND   DISTRIBUTION   OF  FEED        75 


G.L.F.  Exchange  Dairy 

Pounds 

Distillers'  grains 100 

Std.  wheat  bran 360 

Yellow  hominy 260 

Ground  oats 200 

Gluten  feed 440 

Peanut  meal  40% 140 

Cottonseed  meal  43% 160 

Oil  meal  O.  P 100 

Cane  molasses 200 

Salt 20 

Calcium  carbonate 20 

"2000 

Digestible  nutrients 1452 

Guarantee : 
Protein,  20%;  Fat,  4£%;  Fiber,  9%. 


G.L.F.  Sixteen  Per  Cent 

Pounds 

Yellow  hominy 530 

Ground  oats 280 

Std.  wheat  bran 300 

Std.  wheat  middlings 300 

Gluten  feed 400 

Oil  meal ' 50 

Cottonseed' meal  43% 100 

Salt 20 

Calcium  carbonate 20 

2000 
Digestible  nutrients 1476 

Guarantee : 

Protein,  16%;  Fat,  4|%;  Fiber, 
9%. 


G.L.F.  Young  and  Dry  Stock  Feed 

Pounds 

Corn  meal 480 

Ground  oats 480 

Wheat  bran 500 

Oil  meal 200 

Molasses 200 

Alfalfa  meal 100 

Calcium  carbonate 20 

Salt 20 

2000 
Digestible  nutrients 1369 

Guarantee : 

Protein,  13%;  Fat,  3|%;  Fiber, 
9%. 


G.L.F.  Calf  Meal 

Pounds 

Oil  meal 300 

Barlev,  malted 200 

Red  Dog 440 

Oat  flour 300 

Blood  flour 200 

Yellow  corn  meal 500 

Salt . 20 

Prec.  calcium  carbonate 20 

Prec.  bone  meal 20 

2000 

Digestible  nutrients 1560 

Guarantee : 

Protein,  22%;  Fat,  4%;  Fiber,  Z\%. 


These  feeds  can  all  be  used  as  suggested  for  similar  mixtures  in 
earlier  chapters. 

124.  A  complete  feed  service. — In  addition  to  the  above  dairy 
feeds,  the  G.L.F.  Exchange  manufactures  G.L.F.  Horse  Feed, 
G.L.F.  Hog  Feed,  G.L.F.  Laying  Mash,  G.L.F.  Coarse  Scratch 
Grains,  G.L.F.  Growing  Mash,  G.L.F.  Fattening  Mash,  G.L.F. 
Chick  Scratch  Grains,  and  G.L.F.  Intermediate  Scratch  Grains. 
These  feeds  all  have  public  formulas.  We  will  not  take  the  space 
to  give  the  formulas  of  any  but  the  dairy  feeds.  There  is  in  the 
G.L.F.,  feed  service  a  feed  for  every  farm  animal. 


76  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

In  addition,  the  G.L.F.  carries  the  following  stock  of  standard 
ingredients  for  home  mixing: 

Choice  recleaned  yellow  corn  46-pound  barley- 
Yellow  sifted  cracked  corn  Corn  gluten  feed 
Fancy  yellow  corn  meal  Choice  white  hominy 
Yellow  corn  feed  meal  Standard  bran 
Corn  and  oats  half  and  half  ground        Standard  middlings 
Recleaned  white  oats  Choice  flour  middlings 
40-pound  white  clipped  oats  Wheat  mix  feed 
Crushed  oats  Cottonseed  meal  43% 
Ground  oats  Choice  alfalfa  meal 
Fancy  feed  wheat  O.  P.  oil  meal  30%  protein 

125.  Manufacturing  the  feeds. — The  American  Milling 
Company,  Peoria,  Illinois,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  modern 
feed-mixing  plants  in  the  country,  watched  the  development  of 
farmer-owned  co-operative  corporations  like  the  G.L.F. ,  and  its 
president  and  directors  became  convinced  that  the  movement  was 
sound  and  likely  to  endure.  Mr.  H.  G.  Atwood,  its  president, 
therefore  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  managers  of  the 
Co-operative  G.L.F.  Exchange,  the  Eastern  States  Farmers 
Exchange,  the  Pennsylvania  Farmers'  Co-operative  Federation 
and  the  Michigan  Farm  Bureau,  and  finally  contracted  to  manu- 
facture for  them  under  their  supervision  the  feeds  recommended 
by  the  agricultural  colleges. 

As  a  result  of  all  the  co-operatives  contracting  with  the  American 
Milling  Company  for  the  manufacture  of  their  feeds,  a  tremendous 
purchasing  power  was  built  up.  This  immediately  placed  them  in 
an  enviable  position  as  regards  purchases  and  low  manufacturing 
costs.  The  feed  department  of  the  G.L.F.  Exchange — and  what 
was  true  of  it  was  equally  true  of  the  other  co-operatives — found 
itself  in  a  position  to  furnish  its  members  with  high  quality  ready- 
mixed  rations  of  known  ingredients  and  with  public  formulas  at 
lower  costs  than  the  most  optimistic  of  its  members  had  ever 
anticipated. 

126.  A  successful  feed  pool.— During  the  fall  of  1922  it 
appeared  to  the  management  of  the  G.L.F.  and  Eastern  States 
Farmers  Exchange  that  feed  prices  would  be  likely  to  go  higher. 
Both  organizations  accordingly  got  in  touch  with  their  members 


PURCHASE  AND   DISTRIBUTION   OF  FEED       77 


A  Farmer  Owned  and  Managed  Farm  Supply  Store 

At  Fort  Edward,  Washington  County,  New  York,  the  community  got 
together,  organized  and  capitalized  a  community  purchasing  corporation. 
They  bought  out  a  local  merchant.  Now  they  have  their  own  store  through 
which  the  community  buys  Public  Formula  G.L.F.  Feeds,  known  origin 
G.L.F.  Seeds,  and  dependable  quality  G.L.F.  Fertilizers  and  Binder 
Twine.  They  have  paid  dividends  on  their  capital  stock  and  have  ac- 
cumulated a  small  reserve.  Good  business  management,  G.L.F.  service  and 
the  loyal  support  of  shareholders  have  made  this  co-operative  association  a 
success. 

Are  You  Using 

At  many  other  points  in  the 
State,  farmers  are  providing 
themselves  with  warehouse  fa- 
cilities. They  have  organized 
co-operative  corporations,  or  ar- 
ranged with  their  local  dealers  to 
handle  G.L.F.  goods  for  them. 
At  other  places  they  have  elected 
a  community  agent  to  assemble 
carload  orders,  the  purchasers 
taking  the  goods  from  the  car 
when  it  arrives.    If 


G.L.F.  Service? 

munity  has  not  vet  arranged  to 
get  G.L.F.  Feeds,  Seeds,  Fer- 
tilizers, Coal  and  Binder  Twine, 
write  direct  for  full  details. 

The  public  formula  G.L.F. 
dairy  feeds  now  being  mixed  for 
you  by  the  G.L.F.,  are  the  best 
that  money  can  buy,  and  qual- 
ity considered,  are  the  cheapest 
on  the  market. 

You  get  more  milk  and  have 
a  better  cow  left. 


your  com- 

The  Co-operative 
Grange  League  Federation 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


('gfagurfanZ&A:'^ 


nave     a 


78  BETTER  DAIRY   FARMING 

and  suggested  that  they  place  orders  for  feed  without  price,  the 
feed  to  be  purchased  by  the  corporations  at  the  best  possible 
figure  and  delivered  to  them  as  needed.  The  members  responded 
readily  and  orders  were  placed  for  a  very  large  tonnage  as  needed. 

As  a  result  of  this  operation,  the  G.L.F.  purchased  and  delivered 
to  its  membership  in  the  fall  and  winter  of  1922-23,  its  leading 
ready-mixed  dairy  ration,  G.L.F.  Milkmaker,  a  feed  carrying  24 
per  cent  protein,  at  a  price  of  $41  per  ton,  Utica  rate  basis.  Before 
the  feeding  season  was  over  this  same  feed  went  to  $51  per  ton. 

The  feed  pool,  as  it  came  to  be  known,  because  of  the  collective 
placing  of  orders,  has  become  very  popular;  and  it  is  likely  that 
almost  too  much  has  come  to  be  expected  from  this  form  of  feed 
purchasing.  On  the  other  hand,  as  shown  in  a  previous  chapter, 
feeds  are  usually  lowest  in  the  summer  months  and  it  therefore 
follows  that  one  year  with  another  the  owners  of  co-operative 
corporations  like  the  G.L.F.  may  profitably  use  their  organizations 
to  purchase  large  quantities  of  feed  at  what  appear  to  be  low 
prices,  with  the  idea  of  taking  these  feeds  as  needed  throughout 
the  winter  months. 

Because  it  was  well  capitalized  in  the  beginning,  because  it  was 
able  to  secure  skilled  management,  and  because  it  enjoyed  from 
the  outset  a  fairly  satisfactory  volume  of  business,  the  feed  depart- 
ment of  the  G.L.F.  has  been  a  successful  venture  upon  the  part  of 
New  York  State  farmers.  However,  they  can  at  best  only  use  it  to 
perform  the  functions  of  a  manufacturer  and  wholesaler.  When  it 
comes  to  the  problem  of  receiving  and  distributing  feed  locally 
new  agencies  must  play  a  part. 

127.  Local  distribution. — After  studying  the  problem,  the 
management  of  the  G.L.F.  Exchange  has  adopted  the  policy  of 
asking  its  shareholders  in  a  community  to  determine  the  type  of 
agency  which  they  desire  to  use  to  purchase  and  distribute  G.L.F. 
feeds  for  them.  In  some  instances  farmers  have  developed  local 
co-operative  associations ;  in  others  they  have  made  arrangements 
with  established  dealers  whereby  these  dealers  agree  to  work  with 
them  in  purchasing  feed  at  favorable  times,  and  in  giving  price 
recognition  to  cash  payments,  and  to  feed  that  is  drawn  direct 


PURCHASE  AND   DISTRIBUTION   OF  FEED        79 

from  the  car  on  arrival  instead  of  being  taken  from  a  warehouse; 
and  in  still  other  communities,  farmers  themselves  have  operated 
as  individuals  and  as  groups  in  bringing  in  and  distributing  among 
themselves  carloads  of  feed. 

128.  The  Adirondack  Farmers  Co-operative  Exchange,  Inc. 
— One  of  the  most  successful  of  the  co-operative  associations, 
and  one  which  typifies,  according  to  the  best  experience  to  date, 
sound  organization  and  operation,  is  the  Adirondack  Farmers 
Co-operative  Exchange,  Inc.,  located  at  Fort  Edward,  New  York. 

Like  the  G.L.F.  Exchange,  this  is  a  co-operative  stock  corpora- 
tion. Since  co-operative  associations  receiving  and  distributing 
feed  usually  need  to  own  property  and  maintain  stocks  of  goods, 
experience  has  developed  the  fact  that  the  co-operative  stock  form 
of  corporation  which  has  paid-in  capital  is  a  better  business  in- 
strument for  farmers  to  use  than  the  non-stock  form. 

In  practice  the  Adirondack  Farmers  Exchange  uses  the  G.L.F. 
Exchange  to  purchase  grain  for  it  in  the  primary  markets  and  to 
manufacture  its  dairy  rations.  This  is  proper,  since  the  same  farm- 
ers are  stockholders  in  or  owners  of  both  companies. 

In  the  operation  of  the  G.L.F.  Exchange  and  the  Adirondack 
Farmers  Exchange,  it  has  been  demonstrated  beyond  a  doubt  that 
the  most  important  factors,  next  to  the  absolutely  essential  skilled 
management,  are  volume  of  business  and  adequate  working 
capital.  These  factors  are  so  important  that  men  who  are  author- 
ities on  the  question  are  very  doubtful  of  the  success  of  a  co-opera- 
tive corporation  which  cannot  be  adequately  capitalized,  which 
cannot  be  assured  of  an  adequate  business,  and  which  cannot  secure 
a  trained  manager.  Unquestionably  to  make  the  greatest  success 
possible  all  three  of  these  factors  must  be  combined.  Groups  of 
farmers  who  are  not  reasonably  sure  of  combining  them  had  best 
not  develop  local  co-operative  associations.  They  might  better 
depend  upon  the  services  of  established  dealers  who  will  work  with 
them  and  who  will  give  their  business  to  the  larger  farmer-owned 
co-operative  organizations  like  the  G.L.F.,  or  depend  upon  their 
own  efforts  in  pooling  and  bringing  in  carlot  shipments  to  be 
distributed  out  of  the  car. 


80  BETTER  DAIRY   FARMING 


Adirondack  Farmers  Co-operative  Exchange,  Inc. 
s  at  Nove 

ASSETS 


Balance  Sheet  as  at  November  30,  1922 


Current  Assets 
Cash: 

In  Sandy  Hill  National  Bank $1,385.70 

In  Safe 285.10     $  1,670.80 

Accounts  Receivable 10,225.94 

Less  Reserve  for  Bad  Debts 102.26       10,123.68 

Inventories 

Supplies 267.66 

Sacks  and  Bags 207.53 

Gasoline 67.20 

Feed,  Seed  and  Twine 20,404.90       20,947.29 

Total  Current  Assets,  $32,741.77 

Capital  Assets 

Building  and  Land 19,802.62 

Motor  Delivery  Equipment 2,334.60 

Less  Reserve  for  Depreciation 466.06         1,868.54 

Horse  and  Wagon 306.67 

Less  Reserve  for  Depreciation 45.99  260.68 

Machinery  and  Equipment 2,264.66 

Less  Reserve  for  Depreciation 333.99         1,930.67 

Office  Equipment 1,523.07 

Less  Reserve  for  Depreciation 219.02         1,304.05 

Stock  Subscription  Account "  2,610.00 

Total  Fixed  Assets,  27,776.56 

Deferred  Assets 

Unexpired  Insurance  and  Deposits 628.11 

Total  Assets,  $61,146.08 


LIABILITIES 

Current  Liabilities 

Accounts  Payable $    454.36 

Notes  Payable  S.  H.  Bank 14,500.00 

Trade  Acceptances  Payable 4,060.57 

Total  Current  Liabilities,  $19,014.93 

Capital  and  Reserves 

Capital  Stock 35,000.00 

Reserve  for  Contingencies 4,605.45 

Net  Earnings  Six  Months  Ended  Nov.  30,  1922. .      2,525.70       42,131.15  $61,146.08 

I  have  examined  the  Books  and  Accounting  Records  of  the  Adirondack  Farmers  Co-operative 
Exchange,  Inc.,  for  the  six  months  ending  November  30,  1922,  and  hereby  certify  that  the  at- 
tached Balance  Sheet  and  Statement  of  Earnings  reflect  in  my  opinion  the  true  financial  position 
of  this  Exchange  as  at  November  30,  1922,  and  cheir  operations  for  that  period. 

ROBERT  E.   DAME, 
Special  Accountant  for  Local  Co-operatives. 

Careful  bookkeeping  is  as  essential  to  the  successful  operation  of  a  co-operative  as  to  any 
other  business.  Books  should  permit  the  drawing  off  of  such  a  statement  as  this  at  frequent 
intervals. 


PURCHASE  AND   DISTRIBUTION   OF  FEED        81 

Whatever  method  may  be  worked  out  locally,  farmers  should 
realize  that  in  the  purchase  of  all  farm  supplies,  "  Volume  Saves." 
Taken  collectively  the  feed  and  grain  purchases  of  dairy  farmers 
are  enormous.  Co-operative  corporations  such  as  have  been 
described  make  it  possible  for  dairy  farmers  to  pool  their  feed 
grain  purchases  in  the  hands  of  their  own  companies.  The  de- 
velopment is  so  logical  and  the  objects  to  be  gained  so  important 
that  it  seems  hardly  conceivable  that  the  co-operative  movement 
will  fail. 


Part   II 

THE   COW 

Better  Dairy  Farming  Through  Better  Cows 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   IDEAL   COW 

The  main  objects  of  better  dairy  farming  are  to  produce  better 
cows  that  will  sell  for  more  money  and  to  produce  milk  at  less  cost. 
Better  cows  can  be  produced  only  by  improvement  in  breeding.  A 
breeder  can  best  form  his  ideal  by  seeing  good  animals,  noting 
the  work  of  judges  at  the  best  fairs  and  by  studying  the  relation 
between  form  in  animals  and  their  production.  Not  all,  however, 
can  attend  national  shows  and  state  fairs,  therefore,  for  many  of  us, 
our  ideals  must  be  formed  more  or  less  at  home  by  means  of 
pictures,  studies  of  production  and  descriptions.  In  forming  the 
mind's  picture  of  the  ideal  cow,  we  must  always  remember  what  is 
necessary  in  a  cow. 

129.  The  purpose  of  a  cow. — A  cow  exists  to  turn  forage  and 
grain  into  milk,  butter  and  other  milk  products.  Therefore,  to 
handle  large  amounts  of  coarse,  cheap  roughage  and  grain,  size  is  a 
tremendous  factor.  A  cow  is  the  hardest  working  animal  on  the 
farm.  Strength  of  constitution  is  equal  in  importance  to  size.  The 
standard  weights  for  the  dairy  breeds  are,  for  Jersey  cows,  800  to 
1000  pounds;  for  Ayrshires,  not  less  than  1000  pounds;  for  Guern- 
seys, 1050  pounds;  for*  Holsteins,  well  above  1200  pounds  for 
mature  cows.  These  weights  are  all  minimum  and  in  his  ideal  cow, 
the  breeder  should  always  strive  to  have  larger  cows  than  these  at 
maturity. 

130.  Capacity. — The  value  of  a  cow  is  in  direct  relation  to  her 
capacity  to  produce  milk.  Above  that  needed  to  pay  for  her 
maintenance  and  the  reproduction  of  her  kind,  she  must  always 

82 


THE  IDEAL  COW 


83 


pay  her  way  and  yield  a  profit.  Besides,  she  must  pay  during  her 
life  what  it  costs  to  bring  her  up  to  producing  age.  Therefore,  in 
forming  one's  ideal  for  a  cow  in  any  breed,  the  foremost  things  to 
keep  in  mind  are  size,  strength  of  constitution  and  capacity  to 
utilize  food  above  maintenance. 

The  picture  of  Imported  Hayes  Rosie  15476  illustrates  an  ideal 
type  of  dairy  cow.    She  happens  to  be  a  Guernsey  but  she  em- 


>airy  Type 

Imp.  Hayes  Rosie  15476.  Yearly  record  14,630.08  pounds  of  milk,  714.31 
pounds  of  butter  fat.    Owned  by  Langwater  Farms,  North  Easton,  Mass. 

a,  muzzle;  b,  eye;  c,  forehead;  d,  ear;  e,  horn;  f,  neck;  g,  withers;  h,  shoulder; 
n,  chest;  p,  back;  q,  loin;  i,  hip;  o,  barrel;  j,  rump;  k,  thurl;  1,  thigh;  u,  switch; 
r,  udder;  s,  teat;  t,  milk  vein;  m,  shank. 

bodies  the  things  which  should  be  emphasized  as  ideal  in  a  mature 
cow  of  any  breed. 

The  Front  Quarters 
131.  The  head  and  face. — The  head  of  an  ideal  cow  should  be 
fine  and  lean  and  long,  with  no  meatiness,  but  it  must  not  be  too 
long  and  must  have  the  right  balance  to  give  the  right  appearance 
to  the  animal.  The  face  should  be  smooth  with  some  of  the  larger 
veins  showing  and  not  so  long  and  thin  as  to  indicate  weakness. 


84  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

The  forehead  should  be  broad  between  the  eyes  and  slightly  dished. 
The  muzzle  is  particularly  important  and  should  be  large  with  good 
sized  nostrils.  Size  of  muzzle  is  a  good  indication  of  feeding  capac- 
ity and  size  of  nostril  is  a  good  indication  of  breathing  capacity. 

132.  Eye  and  ears  indicate  temperament. — The  cow's  eye 
is  indicative  of  her  temperament.  It  should  be  large  and  placid, 
but  together  with  the  carriage  of  the  head  and  size  and  placing  of 
the  ears,  it  should  give  evidence  of  quality,  alertness  and  the 
possession  of  enough  nervous  energy  to  carry  the  animal  through 
a  heavy  lactation.  The  ears  should  be  set  well  upon  the  head  and 
the  tips  should  not  rise  any  above  the  poll.  The  ears  should  stand 
up  well  and  be  inclined  forward  when  the  cow  is  alert.  The  texture 
of  the  ears  should  be  rather  fine  and  it  is  thought  by  some  experts 
that  the  color  of  the  secretion  in  the  inside  of  the  ear  indicates 
something  of  the  capacity  of  the  cow  to  produce  butter  fat.  The 
yellower  and  more  abundant  the  secretion,  the  more  butter  fat  the 
cow  is  supposed  to  yield.  The  hair  on  the  head,  ears  and  face 
should  be  fine.  The  horns,  if  present,  should  be  of  good  quality, 
not  too  scaly  and  rather  tapering.  For  the  best  interests  of  the 
cow  and  her  owner,  the  horns  should  be  removed  from  all  cows  in 
grade  herds  and  possibly  also  in  purebred  herds.  (66)  This  can 
most  easily  be  done  during  the  first  three  weeks  of  a  cow's  life. 
The  neck  should  be  lean  and  long  with  little  dewlap.  The  fineness 
and  quality  of  a  dairy  cow  are  shown  up  quite  largely  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  head  and  neck.  The  attachment  of  the  head  to  the 
neck  should  be  neat  with  a  clean  throat.  The  neck  should  set 
smoothly  into  the  shoulders. 

133.  The  vital  organs. — Forequarters  are  important.  They 
house  the  vital  organs  that  really  run  the  machine.  They  should 
be  light  but  roomy.  The  heart  girth  should  be  large  and  the 
floor  of  the  chest  broad  and  wide  between  the  legs.  There  must  be 
room  for  capacious  lungs.  This  means  that  the  ribs  must  be  well 
sprung,  the  withers  should  be  rather  sharp  and  the  shoulders  not  so 
prominent  as  to  give  a  coarse  appearance  to  the  animal.  The 
shoulders  can  give  some  idea  of  angularity  to  the  animal,  but  must 
never  appear  rough  or  coarse. 


THE  IDEAL  COW  85 

The  Middle 

134.  Size  and  capacity. — The  capacity  of  the  dairy  cow  to 
utilize  feed  and  to  give  milk  is  indicated  in  the  size  of  barrel  and 
udder.  Our  ideal  Holstein  cow  ought  to  give  100  pounds  of  milk  in 
a  day.  This  means  that  she  has  to  have  a  barrel  that  will  hold 
several  bushels  because  she  must  eat  a  bushel  of  silage,  several 
pounds  of  hay,  some  beets,  some  beet  pulp  and  molasses,  large 
quantities  of  water  and  about  a  bushel  of  dry  grain.  High  produc- 
ing cows  of  the  other  breeds  must  have  barrels  in  proportion  to 
their  size.  When  we  visualize  this  ration  we  see  the  necessity  of  a 
large  barrel  with  well-sprung  ribs,  giving  plenty  of  room.  The  flank 
in  front  should  be  deep  indicating  good  heart  girth.  The  deep 
flank  in  the  rear  indicates  depth  of  barrel  and  good  length  of  rib. 
The  flanks  should  be  thin  in  flesh  as  indicating  good  dairy  type. 

135.  The  abdomen  and  back.— To  carry  this  barrel,  the 
abdomen  must  be  held  well  up  and  the  muscle  walls  strong  and 
fine.  The  back  must  be  straight.  No  breed  type  allows  any  sway- 
backed  animal  to  represent  the  ideal  of  that  breed.  The  top  line 
must  be  straight  right  through  from  withers  to  tail  head  with  per- 
haps a  slight  rise  above  the  pelvis,  the  ribs  well  rounded  out  from 
the  back  with  no  slabsidedness.  There  is  a  feeling  among  breeders 
of  dairy  cattle  that  high  production  is  linked  up  with  a  good 
nervous  development.  A  strong  back  with  plenty  of  room  for  the 
spinal  canal  will  allow  full  nervous  development  of  the  rear 
quarters.     A  straight  top  line  means  a  strong  back. 

The  Rear  Quarters 

The  organs  of  reproduction  are  in  the  rear  part  of  the  barrel,  so 
that  width  and  depth  here  are  necessary  for  the  growth  and 
development  of  the  unborn  calf.  The  loins  must  be  broad  and 
level  and  there  must  be  no  depression  in  front  of  the  hips,  indicat- 
ing weakness  here. 

136.  Hips  and  rump. — The  hind  quarters  of  the  cow  are  par- 
ticularly important.  Here  the  machinery  must  work  smoothly  and 
properly.  Wide,  level  hips  give  room  for  a  wide  udder  below  and 
room  for  the  uterus  to  grow  above.   The  rump  must  be  strong  and 


86  BETTER  DAIRY  FARMING 

level,  with  the  thurls  high  and  wide  apart.  The  whole  nutrition  of 
the  dairy  cow  is  directed  to  the  udder  to  make  milk.  A  large  quan- 
tity of  milk  cannot  be  manufactured  in  a  small  udder  and  a  large 
udder  will  not  develop  unless  there  is  room  for  it.  The  backbone 
must  be  carried  on  a  level  clear  up  to  the  tail  head  and  no  sloping 
in  the  rump  can  be  allowed.  The  pin  bones  should  be  wide  apart 
in  order  that  the  calf  may  be  delivered  without  difficulty.  Some 
men  say  that  cows  with  a  sloping  rump  will  give  just  as  much  milk 
as  cows  with  level  rump.  We  cannot  allow  sloping  rumps  even  if 
this  were  so  because  in  each  breed  we  must  have  uniformity  of 
type  and  straight  backs  and  level  rumps  must  be  held  to.  We  must 
not  neglect  uniformity  in  type  even  to  gain  in  production.  There 
is  much  in  the  beauty  of  animals  and  beauty  can  be  maintained 
without  loss  in  production  if  we  will  establish  an  ideal  and  breed  to 
it.    Beauty  and  production  are  both  possible. 

The  tail  should  be  long  and  fine  with  a  good  switch.  The 
boniness  of  the  tail  helps  to  indicate  the  openness  of  structure. 
Good  dairy  cows  when  mature  are  open  and  rangy  in  conformation. 

137.  Dairy  type,  not  beef  .—The  thighs  must  be  long  and  thin 
and  widely  separated.  There  must  be  no  evidence  of  meatiness  as 
in  the  beef  cow.  In  the  dairy  cow  we  need  room  between  the  thighs 
for  the  udder.  In  the  beef  cow  we  need  thickness  of  the  thighs  in 
order  to  get  a  large  amount  of  meat.  Right  here  is  one  of  the 
great  differences  between  the  beef  and  the  dairy  type.  The  udder 
is  hung  between  the  thighs  and  a  big  udder  must  have  room.  The 
hind  legs  should  be  straight  and  carried  well  apart  for  the  same 
reasons.     The  legs  must  be  clean  with  good  bone. 

The  Udder  and  Milk  Veixs 

We  now  come  to  the  most  important  parts  of  our  ideal  cow, 
the  udder  and  milk  veins.  First,  we  must  learn  just  what  the 
udder  is  and  what  it  does.  With  the  exception  of  what  we  get  in 
the  way  of  income  from  the  offspring,  the  whole  product  of  the 
dairy  cow  comes  through  the  udder.  This  milk  is  derived  from  the 
blood  in  two  glands,  one  on  each  side,  which  go  to  make  up  the 
udder.    Therefore  we  see  what  a  wonderful  thing  the  udder  of  an 


THE  IDEAL  COW 


87 


ideal  cow  is.  The  whole  function  of  the  mature  cow  is  to  consume 
large  quantities  of  feed  and  turn  that  feed  into  forms  which  can  be 
taken  up  by  the  blood.  This  is  the  digestion  and  assimilation  of 
the  feed.  When  the  proper  amounts  and  kinds  of  nutrients  are 
absorbed  into  the  blood  these  nutrients  are  then  carried  to  the 
udder  and  manufactured  into  milk. 

138.    Size  of  udder.— Therefore,  first  of  all  the  udder  must  be 
large  enough  to  do  the  work  that  it  is  called  upon  to  do.   And  when 


DeKol  Plus  Segis  Dixie  25787  (Canadian  Herd  Book) 
One  of  the  world's  highest  record  cows.  Yearly  record  in  June,  1923,  32,632.8 
pounds  of  milk,  1151.48  pounds  of  butter  fat.   She  is  on  test  and  will  probably 
finish  with  the  world's  record  in  butter  fat  production  in  July,  1923. 


this  work  is  to  secrete  60  to  100  pounds  of  milk  a  clay  containing 
all  the  nutrients  found  in  milk,  the  job  cannot  be  done  unless  the 
udder  is  large  enough  to  do  it. 

The  udder  shall  be  long  and  extend  high  up  between  the  thighs 
and  be  carried  well  along  under  the  belly.  The  bottom  or  floor  of 
the  udder  must  be  flat  or  level.   It  must  also  be  wide.   There  must 


88  BETTER  DAIRY  FARMING 

be  no  open  space  in  front  of  the  udder,  but  it  should  extend  forward 
so  that  the  underline  of  the  cow's  body  made  by  the  abdomen  and 
udder  will  be  comparatively  straight.  The  muscular  development 
must  be  such  that  the  udder  is  well  supported  and  not  pendulous. 
In  some  of  the  earlier  imported  cows  the  udder  was  really  a  bag 
hanging  down  between  the  thighs.  This  is  not  the  kind  of  udder 
now  wanted  on  the  ideal  cow  in  any  of  the  dairy  breeds.  We 
want  the  udder  to  start  high  up  behind  and  fill  in  all  the  space 
between  the  thighs  and  extend  way  forward.  The  udder  must 
not  be  cut  up  between  the  right  and  left  halves  and  between  the 
fore  and  rear  quarters.  Probably  the  greatest  general  defect  in 
the  form  of  the  udder  in  all  breeds  is  the  lack  of  development  of  the 
fore  quarters.  In  selecting  a  bull,  his  dam,  maternal  granddam  and 
the  dam  of  his  sire  should  be  seen  to  determine  what  the  chances 
are  for  him  to  transmit  the  proper  form  and  size  of  udder.  In 
selecting  within  our  own  herds,  the  inheritance  to  be  expected 
from  the  females  is  known  and  should  be  considered  in  deciding  on 
which  heifers  to  keep  for  breeders. 

139.  Quality  of  udder  tissue. — The  quality  of  the  udder  is 
highly  important.  There  are  two  extremes  in  udder  quality,  the 
meaty  udder,  and  the  highly  elastic  udder.  The  meaty  udder  as  a 
rule  will  not  yield  much  milk,  no  matter  how  large  it  is.  The  tissue 
in  a  meaty  udder  is  not  truly  secreting  tissue.  This  emphasizes 
the  importance  of  milking  out  a  cow  when  buying  her  in  order  to 
thoroughly  examine  the  tissue  of  the  udder.  Of  course,  we  have  all 
kinds  of  variation  between  the  large  meaty  udder  with  a  small 
amount  of  true  secreting  tissue  and  the  very  fine  large  udder  made 
up  of  true,  elastic,  secreting  tissue  that  milks  out  when  the  milk  is 
drawn. 

140.  The  manufacture  of  the  milk. — The  udder  of  a  cow 
does  not  hold  much  milk.  When  we  milk  out  a  cow,  most  of  the 
milk  is  secreted  from  the  blood  during  fche  process  of  milking.  Of 
course,  there  is  some  space  in  the  udder  that  fills  up  with  milk 
between  milkings,  but  most  of  the  space  is  filled  up  with  secreting 
cells  in  which  the  materials  from  which  milk  is  made  are  deposited 
between  milkings  and  the  tissue  of  the  udder  made  ready  for  the 


THE  IDEAL  COW  89 

next  milking.  In  this  process  of  getting  ready  for  the  next  milking 
between  milkings,  the  cells  of  the  tissues  in  the  udder  are  distended. 
When  the  milk  is  drawn  off  from  an  udder  made  up  largely  of  truly 
secreting  tissue,  the  cells  are  not  so  distended  at  the  end  of  the 
milking  process  and  the  udder  is  soft,  elastic  and  mellow  and  very 
easily  manipulated.  After  the  milk  is  drawn  from  a  good  udder, 
there  should  be  no  hard  spots  in  it.  One  should  be  able  to  manip- 
ulate the  whole  udder  thoroughly. 

The  skin  of  the  udder  should  be  rather  thin,  mellow  and  abun- 
dant, so  that  even  when  the  udder  is  fully  distended  it  will  not 
be  too  tight.  The  hair  should  be  soft  and  silky  and  short,  with  no 
evidence  of  coarseness. 

141.  Teat  placement.— The  teats  should  be  only  four  in 
number.  Extra  teats  do  not  mean  a  better  cow.  These  four  teats 
should  be  well  placed  and  of  such  a  size  and  length  that  the  milk 
can  be  easily  drawn.  The  udder  should  be  snugly  held  against 
the  body  so  that  it  will  not  hang  down  too  much.  If  the  udder  is 
pendulous,  as  the  cow  grows  older  it  is  likely  to  break  down  and  be 
dragged  in  the  mud,  which  will  cause  the  teats  to  become  sore  and 
make  her  hard  to  milk.  In  our  breeding  operations,  we  should 
be  very  careful  to  keep  firmly  in  mind  the  ideal  form  and  quality 
of  udder  in  the  selection  of  breeding  animals. 

142.  Capacity  of  milk  veins. — The  milk  veins  carry  the  blood 
away  from  the  udder.  Since  the  amount  of  milk  depends  on  the 
amount  of  blood  circulating  through  the  udder,  the  milk  veins  are 
an  indication  of  the  capacity  of  the  circulation  of  the  cow.  They 
should  be  long  and  tortuous,  from  one-half  inch  to  one  inch  in  diam- 
eter on  a  mature  cow.  On  the  very  best  milkers  they  are  usually 
crooked  and  extend  at  least  half  way  forward  to  the  front  legs.  It 
is  usually  a  good  sign  if  the  veins  branch  and  enter  the  body 
through  more  than  one  milk  wall  or  hole  in  the  abdominal  wall.  It 
is  also  a  usual  thing  on  the  best  milkers  to  be  able  to  see  the  net- 
work of  veining  on  the  outside  of  the  udder  itself.  We  never  see  a 
large  mature  milk  producer  without  seeing  the  milk  vein  system 
very  well  developed  on  each  side.  The  walls  of  the  milk  veins 
should  be  elastic. 


90  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

General  Conformation 
In  general  conformation  the  skeleton  structure  must  be  open 
instead  of  close  and  tight.  The  bones  should  be  fine  and  strong 
and  large  enough  to  support  the  animal  properly.  The  bones  of  an 
animal  may  be  large  and  yet  fine.  We  must  have  large  frames  in 
order  to  get  capacity,  but  largeness  of  frame  and  good-sized  bones 
must  not  be  confused  with  coarseness.  The  bony  structure  while 
indicating  size  and  openness  must  also  have  quality. 

143.  Dairy  quality. — There  is  such  a  thing  as  dairy  quality  as 
indicated  by  the  appearance  of  the  whole  animal.  She  must 
appear  to  be  alert  and  in  the  best  of  health.  This  is  indicated  by  a 
fine,  mellow  skin  not  too  thickly  covered  with  fine  hair  of  silky 
texture.  The  skin  and  hair  must  be  of  such  quality  that  more  or 
less  of  the  surface  veining  of  the  body  will  show  through  as  it  does 
in  a  well  groomed  race  horse.  The  whole  animal  must  show  a 
bloom  which  when  once  recognized  will  not  be  forgotten  and  will 
be  sought  for  by  proper  methods  of  breeding  and  feeding.  Abun- 
dant oily  secretions  in  the  ears,  at  the  end  of  the  tail  and  on  the  skin 
in  general  are  an  evidence  of  quality.  This  waxy  secretion  is  yellow 
in  color. 

144.  The  wedge  shape. — The  form  of  the  entire  body  of  our 
ideal  cow  will  show  three  distinct  wedge  shapes.  The  form  of  one 
wedge  is  seen  from  the  side  by  the  top  and  bottom  lines  ending  at  a 
point  a  little  in  front  of  the  cow.  This  wedge  is  accentuated  by  a 
deep  barrel  and  deep,  full  udder.  The  second  wedge  is  the  wedge 
formed  with  the  point  at  the  withers  and  the  side  lines  running 
from  the  withers  to  the  hip  bones.  This  wedge  is  seen  by  looking 
down  on  the  cow.  The  finer  the  withers  and  the  wider  the  hips  and 
rump,  the  broader  this  wedge  will  be.  The  third  wedge  is  seen 
from  the  front  with  the  point  at  the  withers.  The  sides  of  this 
wedge  are  made  by  the  general  lines  formed  by  the  sides  of  the 
chest  and  barrel.  The  better  the  chest  development  and  the 
larger  the  barrel  the  more  clearly  defined  this  wedge  will  be.  This 
idea  of  the  ideal  wedge  shape  is  merely  checking  in  the  ideal 
general  form  the  points  that  have  been  described  in  detail.  In 
breeding  for  capacity  we  must  get  it  in  the  chest  and  barrel. 


THE  IDEAL  COW  91 

145.  Dairy  temperament.— We  say  that  the  ideal  cow  must 
have  the  right  dairy  temperament.  This  does  not  mean  excit- 
ability. We  can  see  something  in  the  race  horse  or  even  in  the 
fine  quality  draft  horse  which  makes  us  know  whether  he  will  work 
or  not.  That  same  quality  must  stick  out  on  the  ideal  cow.  She 
must  show  evidence  of  great  nervous  force  that  will  carry  her 
through  a  long  lactation  and  force  her  at  all  times  to  be  thoroughly 
alive,  consume  large  quantities  of  food  and  turn  every  ounce  of 
that  food  into  milk  with  just  barely  enough  taken  out  to  maintain 
her.  We  must  strive  for  this,  breed,  and  select  for  it.  It  will  be 
shown  in  carriage  of  head  and  body,  balance  and  poise  on  properly 
placed  legs,  silkiness  and  quality  in  skin  and  hair,  and  appearance 
of  eye.  Together  with  this  suggestion  of  abundant  life  and  milk- 
producing  power  in  form  and  quality,  must  be  associated  the 
docility,  quiet  and  content  and  lack  of  temper  that  is  always  asso- 
ciated with  maternity.  Maternity  is,  after  all,  the  greatest  force  and 
factor  behind  high  milk  production. 


CHAPTER  X 

PUREBREDS   OR   GRADES? 

We  have  told  what  to  look  for  in  an  ideal  cow  of  any  breed.  Now 
shall  we  be  content  to  have  only  grades  in  our  herds  or  shall  we 
have  purebreds? 

The  title  of  this  book  is  "Better  Dairy  Farming."  Its  purpose 
is  to  stimulate  those  who  may  read  it  to  greater  efforts  to  make 
more  money  and  to  have  a  business  in  which  they  can  take  more 
pride.  Better  money  returns  will  mean  a  greater  comfort  in  living. 
All  these  things  will  surely  come  about  faster  with  purebreds  than 
with  grades. 

146.  Pure  bred  sire  first. — There  can  be  no  argument  in  the 
mind  of  an  enlightened  man  as  to  the  necessity  of  using  pure  bred 
sires.  Intelligent  farmers  are  beyond  that.  "We  sa\T  without  fear 
of  contradiction  that  no  farmer  can  afford  to  use  anything  but 
pure  bred  sires  if  he  is  growing  any  young  stock  at  all  or  is  selling 
any  offspring.  The  offspring  of  grade  sires  will  not  bring  enough 
in  the  market  today  to  pay  for  its  production.  The  whole  study 
must  be  along  the  lines  of  how  to  select  the  pure  bred  sire  and  how 
much  to  pay  for  him. 

Now,  comes  the  question  of  whether  we  shall  be  content  to  use 
only  grade  females  and  improve  the  offspring  from  them  when 
mated  to  pure  bred  males  or  shall  we  go  in  for  pure  bred  females 
also?  Our  answer  is  to  go  in  for  as  many  pure  bred  females  as 
possible  as  soon  as  your  pocket  book  will  allow  it. 

147.  Purebreds  produce  more  than  grades. — We  will  quote 
two  sets  of  figures  to  support  our  argument  to  induce  you  to  do  this. 
Mr.  LeRoy  Hoffer  of  Pennsylvania  reports  on  this  point  in  the 
"Holstein-Friesian  World"  as  follows: 

"The  dairy  extension  department  of  the  Pennsylvania  State 
College  made  a  study  of  the  records  of  ten  cow-testing  associations 
in  seven  counties  in  this  state,  comparing  the  production  of  the  pure 
bred  Holstein  cows  and  grade  Holstein  cows  in  these  associations. 

92 


PUREBREDS  OR  GRADES 


93 


"The  total  number  of  cows  completing  a  year's  work  in  the 
associations  having  the  proper  age  specification  numbered  1013 
cows.  Every  record  in  this  comparison  represents  the  production 
of  twelve  months,  including  the  dry  period.  The  classification 
made  consisted  of  comparing  two,  three,  four,  five  and  over  five- 
year-old  grade  Holstein  cows  with  two,  three,  four,  five  and  over 
five-year-old  pure  bred  Holstein  cows. 

Production  of  Purebred  Holsteins  versus  Grades  in  Ten  Cow- 
Testing  Associations  in  Pennsylvania 


PUREBREDS 

Grades 

No. 
Cows 

Age 

Lbs. 
Milk 

Lbs. 
Butter  fat 

No. 
Cows 

Age 

Lbs. 

Milk 

Lbs. 
Butter  fat 

36 
76 
42 
50 
102 

306 

2yr. 
3yr. 

4yr. 
5  yr. 

overl 
5  yr./ 
all  ages 

7771 

8378 
8017 
9581 

8420 

8467 

276.8 
287.4 
273.2 
320.6 

311.4 

299.1 

80 
111 
140 
120 

256 

707 

2yr. 
3yr. 

4yr. 
5  yr. 

over) 

syr.l 

all  ages 

6164 
6480 
6977 
7271 

7223 

7124 

235.0 
234.6 
256.6 
258.1 

282.7 

260.4 

"The  difference  in  favor  of  purebreds  was  1343  pounds  of  milk 
and  38.7  pounds  of  butter  fat." 

148.  Banks  recognize  purebred  breeders. — In  the  "Guernsey 
Breeders'  Journal"  for  February,  1922,  we  see  how  the  banks  of 
Wisconsin  look  at  this  question  in  the  following  quotation  from 
D.  H.  Otis,  Director,  Banker-Farmer  Exchange,  Madison,  Wis. 

"  Banks  depend  for  their  success  upon  the  success  of  the  com- 
munities in  which  they  are  located.  In  the  rural  districts  and  to  a 
very  large  extent  in  the  cities,  the  success  of  the  community  is 
dependent  upon  the  success  of  the  farmer.  The  farmer's  success 
depends  largely  upon  the  development  of  the  livestock  industry. 
The  higher  the  grade  of  livestock,  or  the  nearer  the  livestock 
comes  to  being  purebred,  the  larger  the  farm  profits.  This  is  well 
illustrated  with  dairy  cattle  in  the  following  table : 


No. 

of 

farms 

I  Grade  cows  only 70 

II  Grades  and  purebreds 42 

III  Purebreds  onlv 8 


No.  of 

Total 

cows 

income 

Profits 

per 

farm 

per 

per 

cow 

farm 

18 

$  95 

$  819 

19 

124 

1151 

20 

189 

2157 

94  BETTER  DAIRY  FARMING 

"The  farms  having  purebreds  only  show  a  profit  of  SI 006  per  year 
over  those  having  part  grades  and  part  purebreds,  and  $1338  per 
farm  over  those  having  only  grades.  This  is  a  good  showing  for 
improved  blood  in  dairy  cattle  and  indicates  that  where  one  is 
equipped  and  sufficiently  experienced  to  handle  them,  judicious 
investments  in  high  quality  dairy  cattle  will  not  only  pay  the 
interest  on  the  investment,  but  much  more.  Banks  can  well  afford 
to  loan  money  to  farmers  who  want  to  use  it  to  invest  in  high 
grade  or  pure  bred  dairy  cattle. 

"At  the  Wisconsin  State  Fair  and  at  the  National  Dairy  Show 
last  October  there  was  an  exhibit  of  a  pure  bred  Guernsey  bull 
and  ten  of  his  daughters.  These  daughters  produced  an  average  of 
119  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  excess  of  their  dams.  Such  a  bull  is  an 
asset  to  any  community  even  though  his  purchase  price  runs  up  to 
several  thousand  dollars.  When  properly  handled  he  will  make 
good  returns  on  the  investment.  Banks  can  well  afford  to  en- 
courage and  stake  the  purchase  of  tested  sires.  It  will  mean  much 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  community." 

149.  Surplus  purebreds  sell  better. — In  addition  to  the 
greater  amount  of  milk  that  will  be  produced  by  purebred  animals  is 
the  added  fact  that  the  surplus  animals  to  be  sold  from  the  pure 
bred  herd  are  worth  much  more  than  surplus  grades.  Therefore, 
each  breeder  should  strive  to  replace  his  grades  with  purebreds 
just  as  fast  as  possible.  It  is  not  advisable  to  sell  the  grade  herd 
off  all  at  once  but  to  purchase  one  or  two  foundation  pure  bred 
cows  and  gradually  replace  the  grades  with  their  offspring  and 
perhaps  further  purchase. 

150.  The  choice  of  breed. — The  "best"  breed  will  not  be 
argued  here.  It  is  assumed  that  the  reader  has  made  his  choice 
of  breed  already.  We  only  hope  that  he  may  pick  up  some  points 
that  may  be  helpful  to  him  in  the  improvement  of  the  animals  in 
the  breed  that  he  has  already  chosen.  The  breed  that  a  man  likes 
and  which  produces  the  products  that  are  in  demand  at  the  best 
prices  in  his  community  is  the  breed  for  him  to  raise.  This  much 
may  be  said,  however, — very  few  men  have  tried  to  stimulate  a  high 
class  market  for  high  grade  products  in  close  touch  with  their 


PUREBREDS  OR  GRADES 


95 


farms.  (285)  It  is  not  hard  to  produce  such  a  product  and  create  a 
market  that  will  yield  a  cent  or  two  a  quart  margin  over  the  average 
price  in  the  community  if  one  will  produce  a  clean  product  and 
stimulate  his  demand.  It  is  this  margin  won  on  clean  products 
that  will  mean  profit  and  comfort. 

151.   Breed  associations  will  help.— All  the  national  breed 
associations,   formed  for   the   purpose   of  registering   pure   bred 


-  ^^flii 

W^^vjf           ^nS 

W    mSr 

S  ^ 

Minerva  Beets  85791 
The  only  five  times  champion  at  the  National  Dairy  Show.    Owned  by 
R.  E.  Haeger,  Algonquin,  111. 


animals,  are  anxious  to  help  farmers  who  have  grade  stock  to  get 
started  with  purebreds.  It  is  well  to  get  in  touch  with  these 
national  associations  at  the  start.  The  addresses  of  the  national 
associations  of  the  leading  dairy  breeds  are: 

The  Holstein-Friesian  Association  of  America,  Brattleboro, 
Vermont. 

The  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club,  Peterboro,  New  Hampshire. 


96  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

The  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  324  West  23rd  St.,  New  York, 
N.  Y. 

The  Ayrshire  Breeders'  Association,  Brandon,  Vermont. 

The  Milking  Shorthorn  Society,  Independence,  Iowa. 

The  Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Association  of  America, 
Beloit,  Wisconsin. 

Write  to  the  breed  association  of  the  breed  you  are  most  inter- 
ested in  and  get  their  literature  as  to  the  best  type,  the  most  popular 
families  and  things  of  this  kind.  It  will  take  only  a  two-cent  stamp 
and  five  minutes'  time.  The  result  will  be  well  worth  while  and 
helpful  because  it  is  important  to  know  the  right  type  of  the  breed 
and  to  get  the  right  ideal  in  mind. 

152.  State  associations  and  state  representatives. — Many 
of  these  associations  have  a  state  secretary  in  your  state  who  will 
be  only  too  glad  to  help  you  find  what  you  want  to  get  started  with 
and  to  help  you  in  your  sales  when  you  have  animals  to  sell.  We 
have  known  of  very  successful  state  secretaries  who  have  made 
good  in  helping  the  farmers  who  own  the  animals  of  the  breed  they 
represent. 

153.  Local  associations. — Perhaps  most  important  of  all  is 
your  local  county  association.  After  all,  it  is  the  combined  efforts 
of  the  many  local  units  that  make  any  great  group  a  success. 
Therefore,  we  should  all  be  members  of  our  local  county  breeders' 
associations.  Some  of  these  county  associations  are  doing  a  wonder- 
ful business.  Columbia  County,  Pennsylvania,  is  doing  well  with 
Guernseys.  Waukesha  County,  Wisconsin,  is  noted  for  its  Guern- 
seys and  Holsteins.  Buyers  come  to  the  clean,  well-known  counties. 
Your  county  can  be  such  a  county  through  you  and  your  neighbors. 

(191) 

154.  Breed  magazines. — Every  breeder  of  grades  or  pure- 
breds  should  be  a  subscriber  to  his  own  breed  magazine.  This  will 
help  him  immensely  in  keeping  up  with  what  is  going  on  in  his 
breed  world  and  in  the  dairy  world  in  general.  We  will  not  take  the 
space  here  to  list  the  breed  magazines.  The  names  and  addresses 
can  be  obtained  from  the  breed  associations  listed  above  when  you 
are  read  v. 


PUREBREDS  OR  GRADES  97 

It  is  a  great  thing  to  be  associated  in  a  national  group  of  earnest 
men  all  working  for  the  same  ideal.  No  better  fellows  live  in  the 
world  than  dairymen  who  are  breeding  pure  bred  stock.  The  local, 
state  and  national  pure  bred  dairy  cattle  breeders'  associations  are 
groups  in  which  it  is  an  honor  to  be  counted.  Membership  is  easy. 
The  ownership  of  a  pure  bred  sire  and  some  pure  bred  females 
marks  you  as  a  member  and  from  that  day  your  road  will  be  easier, 
happier  and  leading  to  an  ideal. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  LEADING   DAIRY  BREEDS 

We  will  now  discuss  briefly  the  leading  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  and 
something  of  the  ideal  already  reached  in  each  will  be  illustrated. 

The  Holstein-Friesians 

This  breed  is  the  most  popular  breed  of  cattle  for  market  milk 
and  is  the  largest  breed  in  size  and  in  numbers  in  the  main  dairy 
states.  In  this  breed  it  is  well  understood  that  size  is  a  desirable 
feature.  Spring  Brook  Bess  Burke  2d,  131387,  page  14,  illustrates 
in  a  wonderful  way  size  and  capacity  in  this  breed.  Her  yearly 
record  is  24,918.1  pounds  of  milk  containing  1032.75  pounds  of 
butter  fat.  She  held  the  record  as  the  largest  dairy  cow  in  the  world 
for  a  time  at  a  weight  of  2225  pounds.  In  1921  her  granddaughter, 
Wisconsin  Fobes  5th,  370303  took  her  world's  record  away  from  her 
when  she  attained  a  weight  of  2240  pounds.  This  is  the  record 
weight  as  it  stands  today. 

Glista  Ernestine,  117999,  page -50,  shows  remarkably  fine  develop- 
ment in  mature  form.  Her  yearly  record  is  23,341.0  pounds  of  milk 
containing  833.73  pounds  of  butter  fat.  She  reached  a  weight  of 
about  1900  pounds.  In  1922,  July  3,  Glista  Ernestine  dropped 
her  eleventh  calf.  Glista  Ernestine  is  a  world's  record  cow  in  that 
she  has  made  a  seven-day  record  of  over  24  pounds  of  butter  fat 
in  each  of  seven  different  lactations.  No  other  cow  has  done  this. 
Twenty-four  pounds  of  butter  fat  is  equivalent  to  30  pounds  of 
butter,  80  per  cent  fat.  Cows  producing  over  24  pounds  of  fat  in 
seven  days  are  called  " thirty-pound  cows."  Glista  Ernestine  has 
produced  an  average  of  100  pounds  of  milk  a  day  for  100  consecu- 
tive days  in  two  different  lactations.  In  one  lactation  she  kept  her 
100-pound  gait  for  119  consecutive  days. 

155.  The  best  record  Holsteins. — In  order  that  our  readers 
may  form  an  estimate  of  the  ideal  production  among  Holsteins,  we 
give  the  following  records :  Segis  Pietertje  Prospect,  221846,  page  3, 


LEADING  DAIRY  BREEDS  99 

has  the  largest  yearly  milk  production,  37,381.4  pounds  of  milk 
in  one  year,  an  average  of  102.4  pounds  per  day.  Agassiz  Segis 
May  Echo,  41302  (Canadian  Herd  Book),  page  54,  is  the  holder 
of  the  world's  record  in  butter  fat  production  for  all  ages  and  breeds. 
She  produced  in  365  days,  30,886  pounds  of  milk  containing  1345 
pounds  of  butter  fat.  DeKol  Plus  Segis  Dixie,  25787  (Canadian 
Herd  Book),  shown  on  page 87,  will  probably  finish  a  record  in  1923 
that  will  be  the  world's  record  in  fat  production  for  all  ages  and 
herds.  Her  record  (June,  1923)  is  32,632.8  pounds  milk,  1151.48 
pounds  butter  fat. 

156.  The  production  of  grade  Holsteins. — The  publication 
of  these  world's  records  may  seem  to  be  out  of  place  in  this  book 
when  we  expect  that  most  of  our  readers  will  not  have  world-record 
cows.  They  are  printed  with  the  idea  that  each  one  of  us  must 
have  his  ideal  and  we  cannot  form  the  right  ambition  and  ideal 
unless  we  have  something  concrete  to  go  by. 

It  should  be  the  ambition  of  every  dairyman  owning  Holstein 
cattle  to  get  the  average  production  of  his  herd  to  10,000  pounds  of 
milk  per  year.  Better  breeding,  better  bulls,  careful  selection,  care- 
ful buying  and  better  feeding  will  do  it  in  time.  These  wonderful 
world's  records  show  that  three  times  this  may  be  accomplished. 

157.  The  best  Holstein  type. — The  Holstein-Friesian  Associa- 
tion of  America,  through  its  " true-type"  Committee,  W.  S.  Mos- 
crip,  W.  W.  Stevens,  R.  E.  Haeger,  H.  H.  Kildee,  T.  E.  Elder, 
W.  H.  Standish,  A.  C.  Oosterhuis,  Axel  Hansen  and  Fred  Pabst, 
has  done  a  most  excellent  piece  of  work  in  standardizing  the  type 
of  Holstein-Friesian  cattle  by  means  of  painting  and  sculpture. 
We  show  pictures  on  pages  100  and  101  of  the  ideal  type  of  bull  and 
cow  as  visualized  by  a  skillful  artist  under  the  direction  of  this 
committee. 

The  pictures  of  Minerva  Beets,  85791,  page  95,  the  only  cow 
five  times  champion  at  the  National  Dairy  Show,  of  Segis  Pietertje 
Prospect,  Agassiz  Segis  May  Echo,  of  Spring  Brook  Bess  Burke  2d, 
and  of  Glista  Ernestine  give  us  an  idea  of  the  possibilities  in  this 
great  breed  of  cattle  as  living  representatives  of  the  type  that  also 
leads  in  production. 


100 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


The  best  way  to  summarize  the  ideal  Holstein  type  of  cow  is  to 
give  the  following  on  Holstein  type  from  W.  S.  Moscrip,  one  of  the 
leading  judges  of  the  Holstein  breed,  as  published  in  the  "Holstein- 
Friesian  World." 

158.  W.  S.  Moscrip  on  Holstein  type.— " My  understanding 
of  the  expression  so  often  used,  or  applied  to  an  animal  as  '  typey ' 


True  Type  Holstein-Friesian  Bull 
is  that  it  is  as  nearly  as  possible  an  ideal  representative  of  its  breed, 
having  all  the  essential  characteristics  of  that  breed. 

"  In  starting  out  to  select  your  foundation  animals,  or  in  choosing 
from  your  herd  already  established,  to  obtain  the  highest  possible 
success,  you  must  so  train  yourself  that  vou  can  readily  recognize 
an  animal  of  superior  type  The  Holstein  breed  has  made  wonder- 
ful progress  during  the  past  few  years,  but  it  is  absolutely  impera- 
tive that  all  who  are  interested  in  the  advancement  of  our  breed 
should  make  every  effort  humanly  possible  for  the  attainment  of 
the  greatest  possible  perfection  in  the  conformation  of  our  animals. 


LEADING  DAIRY  BREEDS 


101 


159.  Conformation  important. — "You  must  select  animals 
with  great,  deep,  well-sprung  middles.  Avoid  the  kind  that  have 
the  appearance,  when  viewed  from  the  rear,  of  an  underfed  sun- 
fish.  In  the  middle  are  the  digestive  organs  that  manufacture  into 
milk  the  feed  we  give  our  animals,  and  they  must  be  large  in  order 
to  have  the  necessary  room  to  handle  a  great  amount  of  bulky 


True  Type  Holstein-Friesian  Cow 
feeds.  Remember,  our  Holstein  type  is  not  exemplified  by  the  cow 
that  will  exist  on  the  smallest  possible  amount  of  feed,  but  is  the 
cow  that  will  consume  and  turn  into  milk  the  greatest  possible 
amount  of  feed  beyond  what  is  needed  for  bodily  maintenance. 
Consequently,  we  must  have  the  tremendous  capacity  that  is 
found  in  the  animal  of  our  ideal  type. 

160.  Constitution. — "Now,  you  must  select  the  ones  that 
have  the  strength  and  constitution  to  carry  on  their  tremendous 
labor.  Remember  that  a  heavy  producing  cow  is  the  hardest 
working  animal  on  any  farm.   She  must  be  deep  through  the  chest, 


102  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

and  have  wide  spring  of  forerib.  This  chest  cavity  contains  the 
heart  and  lungs,  and  in  order  to  properly  do  their  work  they  must 
have  ample  room.  An  undesirable  type  sometimes  found  has  the 
appearance  of  having  been  drawn  in  behind  the  shoulders  with  a 
belt. 

161.  The  forequarters. — "They  should  be  fine — free  from 
any  coarseness.  The  vertebrae  should  be  very  open  from  the 
shoulders  along  the  back  and  free  from  flesh.  This  will  not  be  so 
pronounced  in  animals  in  good  flesh  that  are  dry  and  soon  to 
freshen;  nor  in  heifers  that  are  below  the  milking  age.  A  great 
change  very  frequently  takes  place  in  the  structure  of  the  shoulders 
during  the  first  lactation  period.  In  these  animals  you  must  learn 
that  the  broad  shoulders  will,  as  it  is  put,  'milk  off.' 

"The  neck  must  be  clean-cut  and  fine,  neatly  attached  to  the 
body  and  free  from  any  coarseness  or  superfluous  flesh. 

"The  head  should  appear  as  clean  and  fine  as  if  chiseled  by  a 
master  sculptor,  the  veins  standing  out  prominently  on  the  face, 
and  the  entire  head  free  from  any  meatiness.  The  eyes  must  be 
expressive  of  great  intelligence,  and  large  and  bright  and  full — 
the  term  is  'broad  between  the  eyes.'  The  nostrils  must  be  wide — 
very  wide  and  full;  a  large,  broad  mouth;  a  clean,  powerful  jaw. 
The  entire  head  must  be  clean-cut,  showing  intelligence  and  tem- 
perament. 

162.  The  milk  system. — "The  udder  of  our  ideal  type  is  one 
whose  attachment  to  the  body  is  both  long  and  broad,  the  udder 
coming  up  well  behind,  and  joining  the  body  smoothly  in  front. 
The  floor,  or  bottom,  should  be  level;  the  teats  of  medium  size, 
placed  well  apart  and  squarely  upon  the  udder.  It  is  desirable  that 
the  udder  be  covered  with  a  network  of  prominent  veins.  When 
milked  out  the  udder  should  be  soft  and  pliable  and  free  from  any 
indication  of  meatiness.  In  our  ideal  Holstein  cow  you  will  find  that 
milk  veins  which  are  long  and  crooked  and  branching,  and  which  enter 
numerous  wells,  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  shorter,  heavier  veins. 
In  superior  animals,  we  often  find  a  very  well  defined  middle  vein. 

"The  hide  should  be  soft,  pliable,  and  covered  with  soft,  fine 
hair. 


LEADING  DAIRY  BREEDS 


103 


163.  General  appearance. — "An  animal  of  the  type  described 
above  will  have  a  stylish  appearance,  an  alert  carriage,  an  in- 
telligent look,  which  will  impress  you  with  the  fact  that  she  is  wide 
awake,  ready  to  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  of  converting 
feed  into  milk. 

"I  want  to  take  this  opportunity  to  impress  on  your  minds  that 
in  order  to  become  successful  breeders  of  high  class  dairy  animals 
you  must  be  able  to  see  and  acknowledge  defects  in  your  own 
animals  and  to  see  and  acknowledge  the  superiority  of  the  other 
fellow's — if  they  are  superior.  Study  superior  types  as  often  as 
opportunity  offers.  Show  your  animals  as  often  as  you  can.  Keep 
trying  to  make  each  succeeding  generation  better  than  the  one 
before.  No  higher  calling  than  yours,  as  breeders  of  dairy  cattle, 
exists.  No  one — no  matter  what  his  calling  or  profession — can  do 
more  for  the  advancement  of  our  country  than  can  you,  by  pro- 


Oak  DeKol  Ollie  Homestead  85529 
Grand  Champion  at  National  Dairy  Show  in  1916.     Owned  by  Iowana 
Farms,  Davenport,  Iowa. 


104  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

ducing  better  dairy  animals  than  have  been  produced  before.    It 
can  be  done.    Study  the  score  card  and  keep  trying." 

164.  Holstein  bulls. — With  regard  to  " true-type"  bulls,  Mr. 
Moscrip  expresses  himself  in  the  ''Breeder's  Gazette"  as  follows: 

"In  passing  on  bulls  the  judge  notes  the  impressive,  masculine 
head  and  neck;  strength  of  back  and  loin;  long,  level  rump;  great 
constitution  and  capacity,  and,  in  fact,  all  the  qualities  that  have 
made  the  Holstein-Friesian  breed  the  leader  it  is  today.  All  these 
are  wrapped  up  in  this  one  animal.  Surely  he  will  prove  an  in- 
spiration to  all  who  carefully  study  his  structure,  and  apply  the 
lesson  to  the  selection  and  mating  of  their  animals. " 

165.  Living  example  of  type. — The  proper  type  of  Holstein 
bull  is  illustrated  by  Oak  DeKol  Ollie  Homestead,  85529,  page  103, 
owned  by  Iowana  Farms,  Davenport,  Iowa,  and  grand  champion 
at  the  National  Dairy  Show  in  1916. 

This  picture  of  a  great  show  bull  defines  better  than  words  what 
is  wanted  in  a  mature  Holstein  sire.  The  air  of  masculinity,  the 
dairy  temperament,  the  lack  of  beefiness,  and  the  quality  are  all 
shown  in  a  fine  way.  The  straight  back  line,  the  deep  front  and 
rear  flanks,  the  great  heart  girth  are  all  there.  And  with  plenty  of 
size,  there  is  no  sluggishness  or  lack  of  alertness. 
The  Guernseys 

The  Guernsey  breed  of  cows  is  much  loved  by  many  breeders 
of  cattle  in  the  United  States.  The  most  noted  characteristic  of  the 
Guernsey  breed  is  the  color  that  this  breed  gives  to  its  milk  and 
milk  products.  No  other  breed  can  equal  the  Guernsey  in  quality 
of  milk,  so  far  as  appearance  is  concerned. 

166.  Their  production. — The  great  producers  of  the  breed,  of 
course,  do  not  equal  the  great  producers  of  the  Holstein  breed  in 
pounds  of  milk  per  year.  But  they  are  not  so  far  behind  in  pounds 
of  butter  fat.  The  best  year's  record  of  the  Guernsey  breed  in 
pounds  of  milk  is  24,008.0  made  by  Murne  Cowan  19597.  This 
cow  also  holds  the  second  highest  record  in  pounds  of  butter  fat 
per  year.  Her  best  yearly  record  is  1098.19  pounds  of  butter  fat. 
The  best  year's  record  of  butter  fat  production  is  1103.28  pounds, 
made  by  Countess  Prue  43785,  page  59. 


LEADING  DAIRY  BREEDS  105 

A  good  high  record  in  Guernseys  would  be  10,000  pounds  of  milk 
and  500  pounds  of  butter  fat.  The  average  of  4043  records  in  the 
mature  class,  five  years  old  and  over,  is  10,485  pounds  of  milk 
and  519  pounds  of  butter  fat.  The  average  percentage  of  fat  in 
Guernsey  milk  is  almost  exactly  5.0,  the  average  of  13,474  registry 
records  being  4.988  per  cent  butter  fat. 

167.  Size  and  type  in  Guernseys. — In  size,  Guernsey  cows 
should  be  well  above  1000  pounds,  and  in  the  Guernsey  breed,  as 


Mildred  II  of  Les  Godaines  55120 
Grand  Champion  at  the  National  Dairy  Show  in  1920.  Yearly  record  11,546.9 
pounds  of  milk,  575.06  pounds  of  butter  fat.    Owned  by  Jones  &  McKerrow, 
Waukesha,  Wisconsin. 

in  other  breeds,  size  counts  and  it  should  be  the  endeavor  of  every 
Guernsey  breeder  to  get  1200-pound  cows  as  the  average  size  of 
his  herd.  Guernseys  perhaps  lack  a  little  in  uniformity  of  type  and 
may  be  criticized  as  being  a  little  thick  over  the  withers  and  apt 
to  drop  a  little  in  the  back  line.  The  ideal  of  the  best  breeders, 
however,  is  for  a  straight  back  line  in  Guernseys  as  with  other 
breeds.  The  best  milking  Guernseys  are  spare  in  form  with  beauti- 
ful mellow  hides,  covered  with  silky  hair.  The  color  of  the  Guernsey 


106  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

varies  from  a  light  fawn  to  a  reddish  fawn,  splashed  with  white. 
The  muzzle  of  the  Guernsey  should  be  white  and  the  switch  should 
be  white.  The  Guernsey  breed  is  troubled  a  little  with  dark  noses. 
Probably  it  is  not  worth  while  to  discard  breeding  females  with 
dark  noses,  but  a  bull  calf  with  a  dark  nose  should  not  be  used  in 
a  pure  bred  herd.  Of  course,  if  dark  noses  are  allowed  to  continue 
in  the  females,  they  probably  can  never  be  bred  out  of  the  breed, 
but  it  seems  not  worth  while  to  discard  promising  females  because 
of  this  faddish  characteristic. 

168.  Examples  of  Guernsey  type. — As  a  good  example  of  the 
Guernsey  type,  a  picture  of  Mildred  II  of  Les  Godaines,  55120,  is 
shown  on  page  105.  This  cow  was  grand  champion  at  the  National 
Dairy  Show  in  1920.  She  js  owned  by  Jones  &  McKerrow  of 
Waukesha,  Wisconsin.  A  beautiful  udder,  fine  milk  veins,  large 
size  and  quality  are  well  illustrated  in  this  cow.  Langwater  Cleo- 
patra, 47043,  page  188,  attained  great  fame  in  1922  by  bringing 
the  record  price  for  the  Guernsey  breed  at  $19,500,  when  she 
was  sold  to  R.  L.  Benson,  Princeton,  New  Jersey.  These  cows 
all  show  that  size  and  quality  count. 

169.  Guernsey  bulls. — Probably  no  bull  in  the  Guernsey 
breed  has  had  as  great  an  effect  on  the  breed  as  Imported  King  of 
the  May,  9001,  page  47.  He  has  had  more  influence  than  any 
other  bull  in  the  introduction  of  the  popular  May  Rose  blood. 
May  we  discover  many  other  bulls  like  him. 

Ladysmith's  Cherub,  30670,  page  107,  owned  by  D.  D.  Tenney, 
Crystal  Bay,  Minnesota,  was  the  grand  champion  Guernsey  bull 
at  the  National  Dairy  Show  in  1918. 

Of  course,  all  breeders  of  Guernsey  cattle  cannot  hope  to  own  as 
good  bulls  as  these,  but  their  pictures  are  shown  to  illustrate  the 
ideal  type  to  which  we  must  aim  in  breeding  Guernsey  cattle. 

170.  Guernsey  milk. — One  of  the  characteristics  of  Guernsey 
milk  is  to  hold  its  customers.  The  Guernsey  breed  is  the  dairy 
breed  above  all  others  which  can  well  be  chosen  in  case  one  has 
opportunity  to  develop  a  fancy  toward  any  milk  and  dairy  products. 
The  milk  of  no  other  dairy  breed  is  more  palatable  or  more  highly 
colored  than  the  milk  of  the  Guernsey  breed.    When  a  customer 


LEADING  DAIRY  BREEDS 


107 


gets  accustomed  to  Guernsey  milk,  that  customer  is  not  likely  to  be 
lost  if  the  Guernsey  milk  is  put  up  in  bottles  and  proper  sanitary 
measures  taken  all  through  to  insure  a  clean  product.  More 
breeders  of  dairy  cattle  should  try  to  establish  high  quality  prod- 
ucts and  attract  people  to  such  products.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
suppose  that  only  rich  people  will  buy  high  class  milk  and  pay  a 


Ladysmith's  Cherub  30670 
Grand  Champion  at  the  National  Dairy  Show  1918. 
Tenney,  Crystal  Bay,  Minn. 


Owned  by  D.  D. 


premium  for  color  and  quality  and  butter  fat.  This  is  not  true.  A 
high  color  and  fine  quality  of  milk  will  sell  and  hold  customers  in 
any  city. 

The  Jerseys 

The  standard  in  size  for  the  Jersey  cow  is  not  quite  so  large 
as  the  standard  for  Guernseys.  A  Jersey  cow  must  weigh  in 
mature  form  800  to  1000  pounds.  The  Jersey  breed  is  one  of  the 
breeds  first  imported  into  this  country  and  has  been  bred  very 


108 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


extensively  so  that  large  numbers  of  Jersey  cows  are  scattered  all 
over.  The  Jerseys  have  been  crowded  out  by  the  Holsteins  in  the 
market  milk  section,  because  the  butter  fat  test  of  Jersey  milk  is 
the  highest  of  that  of  any  breed.  The  average  butter  fat  from 
13,840  records  is  5.36  per  cent  butter  fat.  As  will  be  remembered, 
the  average  butter  fat  for  the  Guernsey  breed  was  4.988  per  cent 


Fauvic's  Prince  107961 
A  good  type  of  Jersey  bull.    Owned  by  A.  V.  Barnes,  New  Canaan,  Conn. 

or  practically  5  per  cent.  Therefore,  because  of  the  very  high 
butter  fat  content  of  the  milk,  it  will  be  seen  that  Jersey  milk  could 
not  compete  in  the  fluid  milk  market  with  Holstein  milk  at  the 
ordinary  differential  price  paid  for  butter  fat. 

Jerseys  are  economical  producers  of  butter  fat.  The  advocates 
of  the  Jersey  breed  have  always  stood  up  for  their  breed  as  being 
the  most  economical  producers  of  butter  fat.  Figures  will  not  be 
attempted  to  prove  this  one  way  or  another.  It  is  sufficient  to 
say  that  Jerseys  are  at  least  the  equal  of  other  breeds  in  economical 
production  of  butter  fat.    Therefore,  we  find  them  in  the  largest 


LEADING  DAIRY  BREEDS 


109 


numbers  in  those  parts  of  the  country  where  butter  fat  is  the  form 
in  which  milk  is  sold. 

Like  the  Guernseys,  the  Jerseys  offer  a  breed  for  use  in  those 
places  where  a  fancy  market  may  be  developed  for  high  class  milk. 
The  Jerseys  produce  milk  of  the  same  richness  and  flavor  and  butter 


Fauvic's  Star  313018 
World  Champion  milk  producer  of  the  Jersey  breed.   Yearly  record,  20,616 
pounds  of  milk,  1006  pounds  of  butter  fat.    Owned  by  A.  V.  Barnes,  New- 
Canaan,  Conn. 

fat  as  do  the  Guernseys,  and  it  has  nearly  as  much  color,  so  that 
Jersey  milk  is  a  wonderful  milk  for  market  milk  and,  of  course, 
Jersey  butter  is  very  fine  in  quality  where  it  is  handled  in  the  right 
way  so  as  to  bring  out  the  natural  flavor. 

171.  Jersey  type. — Due  to  the  long  and  careful  breeding  and 
selection  on  the  Island  of  Jersey  and  also  in  this  country,  the 
Jersey  type  is  fairly  well  fixed.  And  Jersey  breeders  like  to  say 
that  the  Jersey  type  is  the  standard  by  which  all  dairy  breeds  are 
judged.   Fanciers  of  other  breeds  probably  would  not  admit  this, 


110  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

but  it  is  true  that  the  Jersey  breed  does  typify  the  characteristics 
of  the  real  dairy  cow,  perhaps  better  than  any  other  breed.  As  an 
example  of  one  of  the  good  cows  of  the  breed,  the  picture  of  Fauvic's 
Star,  313018,  is  shown  on  page  109.  This  cow  is  owned  by  A.  V. 
Barnes,  New  Canaan,  Connecticut.  She  is  the  champion  milk 
producer  of  the  Jersey  breed  with  a  yearly  record  of  20,616  pounds 
of  milk  and  1006  pounds  of  butter  fat. 

Darling's  Jolly  Lassie,  4359-48,  page  205,  has  the  world's  record 
in  butter  fat  for  Jerseys  and  the  world's  record  over  all  breeds  as 
a  junior  four-year-old.  Her  record  is  16,425  pounds  of  milk  and 
1141.3  pounds  of  butter  fat.  The  following  quotation  from  the 
American  Jersey  Cattle  Club  is  of  interest  here: 

"Pickard  Brothers,  of  Marion,  Oregon,  bred  and  tested  Lassie. 
Ovid  Pickard  takes  full  charge  and  does  all  of  the  labor  in  con- 
nection with  the  Jersey  herd,  while  his  brother,  Elzie,  takes  full 
charge  of  the  farming  end.  Many  articles  have  been  written  on 
the  accomplishments  of  cows  owned  by  wealthy  breeders,  and  it 
has  been  generally  believed  that  the  cow  owned  by  the  practical 
dairy  farmer  in  very  moderate  circumstances  could  not  hope  to 
compete  against  the  cow  that  is  favored  with  de  luxe  surroundings. 
The  achievements  of  the  Pickard  herd,  however,  show  that  there 
is  one  factor  in  the  making  of  official  records  which  the  wealthy 
owner  finds  it  very  difficult  to  compete  with,  and  that  is  the  amount 
of  care  and  sacrifice  which  the  practical  hard-working  dairy  farmer 
will  give  to  the  animals  he  loves  and  which  furnish  his  livelihood. 
It  is  very  difficult,  indeed,  to  find  a  paid  herdsman  who  will  place 
the  health  and  comfort  of  his  charges  above  his  own.  This  is  the 
secret  of  the  Pickard  Brothers'  success;  Ovid  Pickard  loves  his 
cattle  and  he  has  found  that  it  has  been  a  paying  proposition  to 
sacrifice  and  to  make  his  cattle  return  his  affection." 

172.  Jersey  bulls. — One  of  the  Jersey  bulls  which  shows  good 
dairy  type  and  that  also  have  been  able  to  back  up  his  form  with 
performance  is  Fauvic's  Prince,  107961,  page  108,  owned  by  A.  V. 
Barnes,  New  Canaan,  Connecticut.  Fauvic's  Prince  has  seventeen 
daughters  that  have  made  records  averaging  10,097  pounds  of  milk 
and  560  pounds  of  butter  fat  with  their  first  calves.    Fern's  Wex- 


LEADING  DAIRY  BREEDS  111 

ford  Noble,  page  119,  owned  by  P.  H.  B.  Frelinghuysen  of  Morris- 
town,  New  Jersey,  was  the  grand  champion  Jersey  bull  at  the  1922 
National  Dairy  Show. 

The  Ayrshires 

The  Ayrshire  is  many  times  called  the  aristocrat  of  the  dairy 
breeds.  Probably  no  group  of  cows  in  a  show  ring  will  produce 
a  more  handsome  or  uniform  appearance  than  a  group  of  Ayrshires. 
The  lines  on  the  Ayrshire  cows  are  straight  and  strong.  There  is 
rarely  any  question  about  the  back  line  in  an  Ayrshire  or  about  the 
ideal  type  of  udder.  Ayrshires  in  show  condition  are  usually  a 
little  more  fleshy  than  the  other  dairy  breeds  and  perhaps  there  is 
a  little  more  difference  in  condition  of  flesh  between  the  Ayrshire 
cow  in  perfect  show  condition  and  the  Ayrshire  cow  in  good  pro- 
ductive condition. 

173.  Ayrshire  type. — Style  receives  considerable  attention  in 
the  Ayrshire  cow  bred  for  show  purposes  and  judges  pay  some 
attention  even  to  the  way  a  cow  moves  around  the  show  ring,  when 
he  is  judging  Ayrshires. 

To  illustrate  the  type  of  good  producing  Ayrshires,  a  picture  of 
Garclaugh  May  Mischief,  27944,  page  112,  is  shown.  She  is  the 
highest  record  cow  in  milk  production  in  the  Ayrshire  breed,  name- 
ly, 25,329  pounds  of  milk  containing  894.91  pounds  of  butter  fat. 
However,  this  high  milk  record  does  not  entitle  her  to  the  highest 
place  in  pounds  of  butter  fat.  Lily  of  Willowmoor,  22269,  page  184, 
holds  the  butter  fat  record  with  955.56  pounds  of  butter  fat  from 
22,596  pounds  of  milk.  No  Ayrshire  cow  has  yet  made  1000 
pounds  of  butter  fat,  but  this  breed  is  not  very  far  from  the  other 
breeds  in  this  respect. 

These  two  cows  whose  pictures  are  given  illustrate  the  wonder- 
ful dairy  type  and  beauty  of  mature  Ayrshire  cows. 

174.  Ayrshire  milk. — The  milk  of  Aj^rshire  cows  does  not  test 
quite  as  high  as  the  milk  of  the  Guernsey  and  Jersey  breeds,  but 
the  average  happens  to  be  almost  exactly  4  per  cent.  For  example, 
the  average  test  of  the  seventy  leading  cows  and  heifers  of  the 
breed  is  4.03  per  cent  of  butter  fat.   This  percentage  of  butter  fat 


112  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

in  the  milk  is  just  at  the  popular  percentage  in  the  minds  of  most 
people  who  buy  a  high  grade  market  milk.  Market  milk,  to  sell 
well,  must  contain  at  least  4  per  cent  butter  fat  and  the  milk  of  the 
Ayrshire  breed  just  nicely  fits  in  with  this  popular  demand. 

Further,  there  has  been  a  good  deal  said  concerning  the  right 
percentage  of  butter  fat  in  milk  for  children,  and  the  enthusiasts 
for  Ayrshires  point  to  this  percentage  of  fat  in  Ayrshire  milk  in 


Garclaugh  May  Mischief  27944 
Record  Ayrshire  cow  for  milk.    Yearly  record,  25,329  pounds  of  milk,  894.91 
pounds  of  butter  fat.    Owned  by  Penshurst  Farm,  Narberth,  Pa. 

claiming  that  Ayrshire  milk  is  the  finest  milk  for  the  babies  and 
children.  In  a  good  many  places  this  belief  is  taking  root  and 
here  is  another  opportunity  for  those  who  love  Ayrshire  cattle  to 
make  a  special  effort  in  the  marketing  of  milk  for  babies  and 
children. 

Ayrshire  cows  are  good  producers,  strong  and  lively.  A  further 
point  much  emphasized  by  Ayrshire  breeders  is  the  ability  of  the 
Ayrshire  cow  to  graze.  She  seems  to  be  somewhat  lighter  and 
perhaps  more  active  than  cows  of  the  other  breeds  and  will  range 


LEADING  DAIRY  BREEDS 


113 


over  rough  pastures  and  perhaps  pick  up  more  than  cows  of  the 
other  breeds. 

175.  Ayrshire  bulls. — A  glance  at  the  picture  of  the  Ayrshire 
bull,  Morton  Mains  Lord  Barry lyndon,  25000,  shown  below  in 
connection  with  this  discussion  of  the  Ayrshire  breed  shows  what 
wonderfully  fine  animals  they  are  and  how  beautiful  is  their  ap- 


Morton  Mains  Lord  Barrylyndon  25000 
A  leading  Ayrshire  show  bull.   Owned  by  Alta  Crest  Farms,  Spencer,  Mass. 


pearance.  This  bull  has  been  a  leading  show  bull  and  is  owned 
by  Alta  Crest  Farms,  Spencer,  Massachusetts.  Perhaps  it  may  be 
said  that  the  Ayrshires  exhibit  greater  uniformity  than  the  cattle 
of  any  other  dairy  breed.  They  are  not  quite  so  open  or  rangy  in 
form,  but  the  greater  producers  the  individuals  are,  the  more  open 
conformation  they  must  have  and  the  lesser  tendency  to  lay  on  fat. 
In  fact,  as  in  any  other  breed  of  cattle,  as  we  approach  great  pro- 
duction of  milk  and  butter  fat,  we  must  more  nearly  approach  the 
ideal  dairy  type  and  form. 


114  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

The  Brown  Swiss 
This  breed  of  dairy  cattle  is  now  demanding  more  of  our  atten- 
tion, particularly  in  Wisconsin,  where  their  popularity  is  growing. 
While  not  so  numerous  in  the  United  States  as  the  other  dairy 
breeds,  they  are  making  a  fine  place  for  themselves. 

176.  The  Brown  Swiss  type. — The  ideal  of  the  Brown  Swiss 
breeder  is  found  in  cows  that  are  small-boned  for  their  size  with 
quality  indicated  by  a  fine,  silky  coat  and  rich,  elastic  skin.  The 
eyes  are  full  and  mild,  indicating,  together  with  the  general  ap- 
pearance and  carriage  of  the  animal,  an  unusually  docile  disposi- 
tion. The  large,  round  ears,  lined  with  long,  silky  hair,  add  to  the 
appearance. 

The  body  is  large  and  well  rounded  and  the  appearance  of 
the  whole  animal  shows  a  strong  healthy  individual,  with  easy 
feeding  qualities,  indicating  that  they  are  easy  keepers  and  strong 
breeders.  The  Brown  Swiss  breed  is  remarkably  uniform.  The 
Brown  Swiss  as  a  rule  are  long-lived  animals  and  have  hardiness  as 
a  strong  characteristic. 

177.  The  milk. — The  milk  of  the  Brown  Swiss  breed  is  about 
4  per  cent  butter  fat,  which  would  show  them  to  be  a  good  breed 
for  the  production  of  market  milk. 

178.  Their  records. — Hawthorn  Dairy  Maid,  6753,  page  129 
owned  by  Hawthorn  Farms,  Lake  County,  Illinois,  has  the  highest 
record  in  both  milk  and  fat  in  the  Brown  Swiss  breed,  with  a  record 
of  22,622.6  pounds  of  milk  and  927.23  pounds  of  butter  fat. 

The  best  types  of  the  Brown  Swiss  are  illustrated  in  Nellie's 
Stasis,  6721,  page  128,  owned  by  L.  S.  Marshall  and  Sons,  Leslie, 
Michigan,  grand  champion  bull  at  the  National  Dairy  Show  in 
1922,  and  in  Hawthorn  Dairy  Maid. 

The  Milking  Shorthorxs 

The  dairy  world  has  had  its  eyes  directed  toward  an  entirely 
new  quarter  in  1923.  The  Australian  Milking  Shorthorn  cow, 
Melba  15th  of  Darbalara,  page  149,  owned  by  the  Scottish- Aus- 
tralian Investment  Company  of  Gundagai,  New  South  Wales, 
finished  her  wonderful  year  with  a  record  of  29,423  pounds  of 


LEADING   DAIRY  BREEDS  115 

milk  and  1,316  pounds  of  butter  fat.  This  places  her  second  in 
world's  production  of  butter  fat.  Her  record  is  exceeded  only  by 
that  of  Agassiz  Segis  May  Echo,  with  1345  pounds.  This  record 
clearly  centers  attention  on  the  Milking  Shorthorn  as  a  contender 
for  dairy  honors  among  strictly  dairy  cattle. 

179.  Milking  Shorthorn  type.— It  is  rather  plain  from  their 
writings  that  breeders  of  Milking  Shorthorns  do  not  wish  to  be 
classed  as  breeders  of  dairy  cattle  strictly  speaking.  They  believe 
that  their  cattle  are  really  dual-purpose  and  that  the  ideal  type 
of  Milking  Shorthorn  must  not  go  to  the  extreme  dairy  type 
because  of  the  necessary  beefing  qualities  of  the  breed. 

Instead  of  trying  to  put  the  qualities  and  points  to  be  attained 
in  the  ideal  of  the  Milking  Shorthorn  into  our  own  words,  we 
will  quote  from  the  statement  of  the  breed  association  on  judg- 
ing Milking  Shorthorns: 

"Milking  Shorthorns  are  produced  to  perform  a  dual  function, 
viz. :  the  production  of  beef  and  the  production  of  milk  and  butter 
fat.  A  good  judge  knows  that  there  are  close  relationships  existing 
between  form  and  function.  To  produce  beef  and  milk,  an  animal 
must  be  a  good  feeder,  indicated  by  a  wide  muzzle  and  roominess 
in  the  region  of  the  digestive  organs.  The  good  beef  animal  must 
have  a  strong,  straight  and  wide  back,  with  strong  loin  and  well- 
sprung  ribs.  The  milk  animal  shows  her  ability  to  produce  by 
having  a  good  udder  well  held  up  between  the  thighs  and  carried 
well  forward  beneath  to  the  belly.  The  teats  should  be  uniform  in 
size  and  evenly  placed  well  apart.  Milk  veins  should  be  large  and 
extend  well  forward  toward  the  front  legs. 

"It  is  not  possible  to  attain  the  extreme  dairy  type  and  retain 
the  necessary  beefing  qualities  of  the  Milking  Shorthorn.  There 
are  characteristics  common  to  both  beef  and  dairy  animals  and 
these  the  Milking  Shorthorn  should  have.  Shorthorn  character 
should  be  noticeable  in  the  shape  and  type  of  head  and  horn.  The 
eye  should  be  clear,  indicating  health,  and  the  horn  ought  to  be 
short  and  slightly  curving  forward.  The  neck  (on  the  cow)  should 
be  graceful  but  not  slight;  shoulders  well  laid  in,  smooth  and  not 
too  thick  at  the  top.  The  chest  should  be  deep  and  wide,  indicating 


116  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

sufficient  room  for  heart  and  lung  development.  A  straight  wide 
back  indicates  room  for  development  of  meat  when  the  cow  is  dry 
and  a  good  udder  indicates  capacity  to  produce  milk. 

"The  bull  will  naturally  show  indications  of  masculinity  and  is 
stronger  in  the  head,  neck  and  forequarters.  An  erect  head  grace- 
fully carried  on  a  strong  neck  showing  a  well  pronounced  crest  is 
desirable.  The  shoulders  are  prominent  but  smoothly  laid  in. 
The  top  and  bottom  lines  should  be  straight  and  the  thighs  and 
whole  conformation  less  thick  than  in  the  case  of  the  beef  bull. 

"The  Milking  Shorthorn  bull  has  a  more  open  loin,  slightly 
longer  body  and  greater  length  of  rump  than  the  beef  bull,  but  he 
must  present  a  larger  chest  and  middle,  indicating  health  and  feed- 
ing capacity. " 

180.  Good  Milking  Shorthorn  individuals.— As  represen- 
tative of  the  best  of  the  type  of  Milking  Shorthorn  cows  in  America, 
we  show  the  picture  of  Bare  Fashion,  634770,  page  139,  owned  by 
H.  E.  Tener  of  New  York.  She  has  a  record  of  17,027.9  pounds  of 
milk,  581.47  pounds  of  fat.  Illington  Beauty,  1070790,  owned  by 
Sherwood  Farms,  Far  Hills,  New  Jersey,  is  the  highest  milk 
producer  among  the  Milking  Shorthorns  in  America.  Her  record  is 
18,257.3  pounds  of  milk  and  677.11  pounds  of  butter  fat.  The  best 
Milking  Shorthorn  fat  producer  in  America  is  Snowdrop,  647217, 
also  owned  by  Sherwood  Farms.  Her  record  is  15,550.8  pounds  of 
milk  and  692.22  pounds  of  butter  fat.  A  good  type  of  Milking 
Shorthorn  bull  is  illustrated  in  Count  Tickford,  738427,  page  146, 
the  grand  champion  bull  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Show  in 
1922.    He  is  owned  by  F.  W.  Sullivan,  Battle  Creek,  Michigan. 


Part  III 

THE   BULL 

Better  Dairy  Farming  Through  Better  Breeding 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  IDEAL  BULL 

We  assume  in  urging  certain  principles  upon  our  breeders  by- 
use  of  which  they  may  make  more  money  in  better  dairy  farming, 
that  they  are  all  interested  in  improving  their  own  herds  by  breed- 
ing and  raising  better  cows  of  their  own  breeds  and  the  feeding 
out  of  the  young  stock  to  proper  maturity. 

181.  A  pure  bred  bull  on  every  farm.— If  a  man  is  to  im- 
prove his  herd  through  breeding,  then  the  bull  is  the  all-important 
factor.  First  of  all,  the  bull  must  be  a  purebred.  There  is  no 
argument  for  using  a  grade  bull.  Not  even  the  money  argument 
can  be  used  any  longer  because  pure  bred  bulls  can  be  purchased 
for  very  small  sums  as  calves.  Hugh  Van  Pelt,  a  veteran  breeder 
of  Jerseys,  says  in  the  "Dairy  Farmer"  of  August  1, 1922,  that  we  are 
registering  only  about  75,000  pure  bred  bull  calves  each  year  and 
175,000  are  being  slaughtered.  We  need  four  million  pure  bred 
sires  to  have  a  pure  bred  sire  on  every  farm  where  cows  are  milked. 
If  every  pure  bred  bull  were  saved  it  would  take  20  years  to  get  a 
pure  bred  bull  on  every  farm. 

-  182.  Strive  for  improvement. — Due  to  the  continued  pound- 
ing of  leaders  in  the  dairy  business  and  extension  workers  on  the 
idea  that  pure  bred  sires  must  be  from  dams  with  advanced  registry 
records,  if  we  are  going  to  have  improvement,  perhaps  farmers 
have  got  the  idea  that  they  can  get  along  just  as  well  with  scrub 
and  grade  sires  as  they  could  with  pure  bred  sires  from  dams  that 
have  not  been  tested  for  advanced  registry.  Also  breeders  having 
herds  of  pure  bred  cattle  have  at  times  taken  the  point  of  view  that 

117 


118  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

it  was  very  bad  business  policy  for  them  to  sell  bulls  from  their 
herds  at  low  prices.  They  have  knocked  the  calves  in  the  head 
rather  than  let  them  go  out  for  small  sums. 

183.  Purebreds  create  interest.— Now  our  ideas  and  the  idea 
of  Mr.  Van  Pelt  is  that  a  farmer  should  certainly  have  a  pure  bred 
bull  at  the  head  of  his  herd  and  without  question  the  thing  for  him 
to  do  is  to  have  the  best  one  that  he  can  get  and  if  he  cannot  make 
up  his  mind  to  put  real  money  into  a  bull,  then  let  him  get  the  best 
one  he  can  for  the  price  that  he  can  pay.  If  he  cannot  pay  more 
than  $10,  then  get  a  pure  bred  bull  from  an  untested  dam  as  a  new- 
born calf  for  this  price  and  be  sure  that  the  calf  is  registered  and 
feed  him  out  to  take  the  place  of  his  scrub  or  grade  bull.  Certainly 
it  is  true  that  if  the  calf  is  a  good  individual  coming  from  a  good 
individual  pure  bred  cow  and  from  a  good  individual  pure  bred 
bull,  this  calf  will  improve  the  herd  better  than  a  grade  bull.  A 
farmer  that  gets  interested  in  having  a  pure  bred  bull  will  never 
go  back  to  the  use  of  a  scrub  or  grade  bull  and  the  fact  that  he  has 
a  pure  bred  registered  male  at  the  head  of  his  herd  will  soon  interest 
him  to  have  one  or  two  pure  bred  females  to  mate  to  this  bull  and 
then  his  interest  is  soon  awakened  to  such  an  extent  that  he  is 
ambitious  to  have  a  pure  bred  herd.  From  then  on,  the  improve- 
ment in  his  herd  will  be  rapid. 

Many  breeders  even  when  operating  on  an  extensive  scale 
cannot  test  all  of  their  animals  and  there  are  many  small  breeders 
who  can  not  afford  to  test  at  all,  even  though  their  herds  may  be 
all  pure  bred.  Yet  the  animals  that  are  not  tested  in  the  larger 
herds  and  the  animals  that  are  not  tested  in  the  small  herds  may  be 
of  very  strong  blood  lines  and  the  bulls  from  untested  dams  in 
these  herds  may  be  as  prepotent  and  as  powerful  in  bringing  about 
increased  production  as  bulls  from  tested  dams. 

184.  Bull  all-important. — Therefore,  each  breeder  of  grade 
cattle  should  secure  the  help  of  his  agricultural  college  or  that  of  a 
neighbor  who  is  a  purebred  breeder,  to  find  some  breeder  that  has 
bulls  from  untested  dams  that  he  will  sell  cheaply.  Then  he  should 
buy  one  of  these  bulls  for  his  use  until  such  time  as  he  can  afford 
to  get  the  bull  he  wants  from  a  tested  dam. 


THE  IDEAL  BULL 


119 


No  misunderstanding  should  arise  from  the  above  argument. 
The  bull  is  more  than  one-half  the  herd.  Farmers  should  learn  this 
first  of  all.  In  the  herd  of  20  cows  the  bull  influences  every  one 
of  the  20  offspring.  Each  one  of  the  20  cows  can  only  influence 
one  offspring  in  any  one  year.  Therefore,  since  the  hereditary 
contribution  of  the  bull  is  on  the  average  one-half  of  each  of  the 


Fern's  Wexford  Noble  172066 
Grand  Champion  Jersey  bull,  at  the  National  Dairy  Show,  1922.    Owned 
by  Twin  Oaks  Farm,  Morristown,  N.  J. 

offspring  produced  each  year,  the  influence  of  the  bull  on  the 
productivity  of  the  herd  and  on  the  uniformity  of  the  herd  is  as 
great  or  greater  than  the  influence  of  all  the  cows  put  together. 
This  seems  hard  to  believe,  but  the  hereditary  contribution  of  the 
cows  is  very  divergent  because  there  are  20  of  them,  but  the  he- 
reditary contribution  of  the  bull  is  the  same  in  the  case  of  every 
heifer  produced  from  him. 

185.   Buy  the  best  you  can.— Therefore,  we  see  the  tremen- 
dous reason  for  having  the  best  bull  that  we  can  possibly  afford. 


120  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

We  say  that  we  cannot  afford  to  pay  two  or  three  hundred  dollars 
for  a  pure  bred  bull.  Yet,  when  a  horse  in  a  team  dies,  we  do  not 
hesitate  a  minute  about  borrowing  the  money  to  replace  that  horse 
because  we  have  to  have  the  horse  to  do  the  work.  We  can  get 
the  breeding  work  done  with  a  scrub  bull,  but  we  do  not  realize  the 
importance  of  having  a  good  bull.  Wonderfully  good  bulls  can 
be  purchased  today  in  all  of  the  dairy  breeds  as  calves  for  two  to 
three  hundred  dollars  each.  Therefore,  let  us  drive  this  thought 
home  to  every  reader.  If  you  do  not  have  a  good  pure  bred  bull, 
do  not  breed  another  cow  until  you  get  one. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
BUYING   A  PURE  BRED   BULL 

186.  The  value  of  pedigree.— In  buying  a  pure  bred  bull  to 
head  either  a  grade  or  a  pure  bred  herd  the  first  thing  to  look 
at  is  the  bull  and  then  look  over  his  pedigree.  No  matter  how 
good  the  pedigree  may  be,  a  poor  individual  should  not  be  bought. 

However,  the  pedigree  is  so  important  that  a  bull  will  not  be 
likely  to  bring  about  much  improvement  in  production  unless  he 
comes  from  a  line  of  high-producing  ancestors,  so  that  we  must 
conclude  that  after  all  is  said,  the  pedigree  is  as  important  as  the 
individuality  and  we  must  study  both  equally  well  to  judge  our 
animal. 

187.  How  to  read  a  pedigree. — The  best  way  to  show  how  to 
read  a  pedigree  and  to  judge  the  value  of  the  breeding  of  the 
animal,  and  to  judge  his  ability  is  to  show  a  pedigree  and  pick 
out  the  ancestors  which  give  us  a  basis  to  form  our  judgment.  On 
page  123  is  given  the  pedigree  of  Carnation  King  Setske  Segis, 
361477.  He  was  sold  at  the  third  co-operative  national  sale  held  in 
connection  with  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Holstein-Friesian 
Association  of  America  in  June,  1922.  He  was  purchased  by  the 
Pereley  Dairy  Company  of  Crescent,  Missouri,  for  $1500.  What 
was  there  in  his  pedigree  in  connection  with  his  own  individuality 
which  gave  him  this  value? 

The  immediate  ancestors  of  an  animal  used  for  breeding  are 
more  important  than  those  farther  back.  The  real  value  of  an 
animal  for  breeding  and  improvement  can  be  judged,  (1)  from  his 
dam  and  her  record ;  (2)  the  sire  and  his  record ;  (3)  from  the  dam 
of  the  sire  and  her  record;  (4)  from  the  sire  of  the  sire  and  his 
record;  (5)  from  the  dam  of  the  dam  and  her  record;  (6)  from  the 
sire  of  the  dam  and  his  record;  and  (7)  from  the  more  remote 
ancestors  and  their  breeding  and  records.  In  short,  we  must  study 
intensively  the  records  of  the  first  two  generations  back  of  the 
animal  under  consideration  and  then  learn  the  family  lines  and 

121 


122  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

the  records  in  the  back  generations  which  give  him  his  breeding 
power. 

188.  The  records  on  the  dam's  side. — This  pedigree  shows 
that  this  bull  is  out  of  a  dam  with  a  record  of  33  pounds  of  butter 
in  seven  days  at  five  years  of  age  and  another  record  of  28  pounds 
at  4  years.  In  the  Holstein-Friesian  breed  a  "thirty-pound  cow" 
is  a  cow  with  a  record  of  thirty  pounds  of  80  per  cent  butter  or  24 
pounds  of  butter  fat  in  seven  days.  Thirty-pound  cows  are  con- 
sidered good  producing  cows.  The  dam  comes  from  a  good  line  of 
breeding  with  a  sire  who  not  only  has  many  advanced  registry 
daughters  but  who  was  evidently  an  outstanding  individual,  as 
evidenced  in  his  show  yard  winnings  in  Oregon  and  Washington 
fairs.  Her  dam,  the  maternal  grandam  of  the  bull  under  con- 
sideration, had  a  record  of  28  pounds  and  was  a  full  sister  of  Belle 
Josephine  Ormsby,  with  a  yearly  record  of  1127  pounds  of  butter. 

189.  The  records  on  the  sire's  side.— The  sire  of  this  bull 
was  Carnation  King  Sylvia,  the  only  bull  to  sell  for  $106,000.  He 
gets  his  value  from  his  dam,  May  Echo  Sylvia,  whose  seven-day 
record  of  41.01  pounds  of  butter  and  1005.8  pounds  of  milk  is  a 
wonderful  record.  She  also  has  five  thirty-pound  records.  She 
was  the  first  cow  to  produce  150  pounds  of  milk  in  one  day. 

Carnation  King  Sylvia  gets  further  value  from  the  fact  that 
his  dam,  May  Echo  Sylvia,  is  also  his  great  grandam  on  his  sire's 
side  because  she  is  the  dam  of  Avon  Pontiac  Echo,  the  sire  of 
King  Echo  Sylvia  Johanna.  In  this  way  it  is  seen  that  he  is 
"line  bred"  from  May  Echo  Sylvia.  Also  the  dam  of  his  sire  has  a 
record  of  37  pounds.  Taken  altogether  it  is  seen  that  the  records 
on  both  sides  of  the  pedigree  are  very  fine. 

It  was  said  of  Carnation  King  Setske  Segis  at  the  sale  that  he 
was  "an  excellent  individual  from  a  cow  that  is  making  a  large 
milk  record."  This  pedigree  and  brief  description  will  make  it 
plain  how  one  should  go  about  reading  a  pedigree. 

190.  The  value  of  advertising. — When  one  is  buying  a  bull  to 
head  his  herd  he  should  buy  some  advertising  with  him.  We  have 
chosen  this  pedigree  of  Carnation  King  Setske  Segis  to  illustrate 
another  point.   Mr.  A.  C.  Oosterhuis,  member  of  the  "true  type" 


BUYING  A  PURE  BRED  BULL 


123 


CARNATION  KING  SETSKE  SEGIS  361477 

Born  November  20,  1921 

Owned  by  Pereley  Dairy  Co.,  Crescent,  Mo. 


Carnation  King  Sylvia 

231045 
1  A.  R.  O.  daugnter 
Carnation  Sylvia  Pietertje 
Butter  2Jy  23.48 

Milk  417.40 

The  records  of  his  7  nearest 
dams  average 
Butter  7  da  33.13 

Milk  646.84 

He  is  line  bred  on  both  sides  to 
the  greatest  family  in  the  world.] 
His  dam,  the  world  wonder  milk  | 
producer,  May  Echo  Sylvia,  is 
also  his  great  grandam  on  his 
sire's  side.  His  37-lb.  sire  is  from 
the  only  three  times  30-lb.  cow  to 
have  a  three  times  30-lb.  daugh- 
ter. His  dam  holds  all  world 
milk  records  from  7  days  to  90 
days,  and  was  the  first  cow  to 
produce  150  lbs.  of  milk  in  a  sin- 
gle day. 


King  Echo  Sylvia  Johanna 
203054 

5  A.  R.  O.  daughters 
King    Segis    D    K    Korndyke 

Duch.  2d 

Butter  3|y  29.05 

Milk  476.40 


Avon  Pontiac  Echo 

203055 

36  A.  R.  O.  dau.  18  over  20  lbs. 
3  over  30  lbs. 
7  Semi-official  daughters 
Raymondale  Abb.  D  K  4y 

1167.00 


Echo  Sylvia  Rose  3|y 

Milk  402.60 

Sylvia  Johanna  Parma  2yl7.58 

Milk  404.50 

Echo  Sylvia  Queen  2|y       17 .  13 


21.58  Belle  ModelJohanna  2d 

113357 

Butter  37.34 


4  A.  R.  O.  dau.  3  over  20  lbs. 
2  over  36  lbs. 


May  Echo  Sylvia 

Butter 

Milk 

(World  record) 


flnka  Sylvia  Beets  Posch 
223725  122780 

410l|     36  A.  R.  O.  dau.  4  over  30  lbs. 
|  May  Echo  Sylvia  7y  41.01 

1005 .  80      20  others  over  20  lbs. 

12  Semi-official  daughters 


Carnation  Setske  Segis 

Butter  5y 
Milk 


376194 

33.18 

573.70 


From  a  full  sister  to 
Belle  Josephine  Ormsby 
Butter  lOy  31.58 

Milk  543.40 


Five  times  30-lb.  cow 


Forward  Prince  Segis 


125061 


25  A.  R.  O.  dau.  13  over  20 lbs. 
Carnation  Setske  Seg.  5y  33. 18 
Carnation  Sky.  Segis  4y    30.89 

Milk  745.30 

fi  Semi-official  daaghters 
Lady  Mollie  Segis  3Jy       834 .  60 


Belle  Setske  Josephine  2d 

167903 

Butter  5y  28.19 

Milk  506.80 

3  A.  R.  O.  dau.  2  over  20  lbs. 

Carnation  Setske  Segis  5y  33 .  18 
Milk  573.70 

Lady  Ollie  Fayne  3y  22 .  02 


May  Echo  Verbelle 

223724 
Butter  10|  y  29  80 

4  A.  R.  O.  dau.  1  with  41  lbs. 
1  with  33  lbs. 

(Segis  Lyons  Hengerveld 

69558 
14  A.  R.  O.  daughters 
Forward  Segis  Pontiac       21.95 

Milk  464.90 

Forward  Seg.  Cor.  4|y        19.01 


Inka  Princess  Mutual  DeKol 

65425 

Butter  7§y  33.25 

3  A.  R.  O.  dau.  2  over  20  lbs. 
lSemi.  with  1087  lbs. 


Sir  Skylark  Ormsby  Henger- 
veld 39138 

6  Semi-official  daughters 
Belle  Josephine  Orm.  8yll27.27 
38  A.  R.  O.  dau.  25  over  20  lbs. 
5  over  30  lbs. 

Belle  Setske  Josephine 

56593 

Butter  2^y  12.48 

Milk  258.60 

3  A.  R.  O.  dau.  1  over  30  lbs. 
One  1127-lb.  Semi-official 


124 


BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 


committee  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  breed,  was  asked  by  one  of  the 
authors,  how  to  buy  a  bull  calf.  He  said  that  one  of  the  most 
important  things  for  a  beginner  to  do  was  to  choose  a  bull  from  a 
well  known  line  of  breeding  that  was  sure  to  receive  a  large  amount 
of  advertising.  Then  whatever  good  may  result  from  the  use  of 
the  bull  will  share  in  the  benefit  of  the  general  advertising  of  the 


Langwater  Fearless  77111 
Owned  by  Columbia    Countv    Breeders'   Association,   Columbia  Countv, 
Penn.     Purchased  1922,  for  $7500.00. 

family  by  all  the  owners  of  members  of  the  family.  It  is  hard  to 
sell  good  individuals  from  unknown  lines  or  families  in  any  breed. 
The  offspring  of  this  bull  calf  will  sell  easier  because  they  will  be  of 
May  Echo  Sylvia  and  Carnation  King  Sylvia  breeding. 

191.  Buying  a  community  bull. — Good  breeding  can  be 
brought  about  through  the  community  bull.  One  of  the  best  exam- 
ples of  the  interest  that  some*  farmers  take  is  shown  by  the  purchase  of 


BUYING  A  PURE  BRED  BULL  125 

Langwater  Fearless,  77111,  page  124,  for  $7500  by  25  of  the  foremost 
breeders  of  Columbia  County,  Pennsylvania.  The  money  was 
raised  by  the  sale  of  shares  at  $25.00  each.  Each  share  carries 
with  it  the  right  to  one  service  during  the  period  of  five  years. 
Each  breeder  has  made  himself  responsible  for  the  number  of 
shares  he  expects  to  require.  A  breeder  having  25  shares  will  get 
five  services  a  year  for  the  period  of  five  years.  This  represents 
the  high  extreme  to  which  community  breeding  may  go.  Of 
course  a  group  of  men  in  a  neighborhood  could  go  into  this  sort  of 
thing  on  any  scale. 

192.  The  pedigree  of  Langwater  Fearless.— On  page  126  is 
shown  the  pedigree  of  this  young  bull.  It  was  said  that  he  was  the 
most  valuable  young  Guernsey  bull  in  the  world  at  the  time  of  the 
Langwater  dispersal  sale  in  June,  1922.  In  connection  with  the 
idea  of  advertising  as  expressed  in  another  paragraph  the  whole 
community  gained  from  the  purchase  of  this  bull  and  all  the 
Guernsey  cattle  in  Columbia  County  of  May  Rose  and  Langwater 
breeding  will  be  distinctly  benefited  from  the  fact  that  a  young 
bull  of  exceptionally  popular  blood  lines  is  coming  into  their  part 
of  the  country.  These  men  have  done  more  than  to  buy  a  bull. 
They  have  put  their  community  on  the  map  and  have  stimulated 
better  breeding  and  better  care  of  animals  in  that  whole  part  of 
Pennsylvania. 

193.  His  ancestors. — A  study  of  the  pedigree  will  show  that 
he  is  a  son  of  Langwater  Phyllis,  70607,  who  is  a  granddaughter  of 
Imp.  King  of  the  May,  9001.  She  has  a  record  of  13,288.4  pounds 
of  milk  and  746.23  pounds  of  butter  fat  at  two  years  of  age.  His 
sire  was  Langwater  Warrior,  26509,  who  is  a  son  of  Imp.  King  of 
the  May,  9001.  Imp.  King  of  the  May,  9001,  was  the  greatest  sire 
of  his  day.  The  dam  of  Langwater  Warrior  was  Langwater  Lily, 
26606,  who  in  turn  was  the  dam  of  Langwater  Levity,  70293,  that 
made  12,785.9  pounds  of  milk  and  662.15  pounds  of  butter  fat  as  a 
three-year-old. 

This  shows  the  value  of  this  young  bull  because  of  the  line 
breeding  to  Imp.  King  of  the  May,  9001,  and  the  very  fine  breeding 
and  records  of  his  nearby  ancestors. 


126 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


LANGWATER  FEARLESS  77111 

Born  July  26,  1921 

Owned  by  Columbia  Co.  Accredited  Herd  Guernsey  Assn.,  Penn. 


Langwater  Warrior  26509  A.R. 

Sold  for  $15,000.00 

Sire  of 

14  A.  R.  Daughters  1  A.  R.  Son 

Langwater  Queen  of  the  East 
13221.51b.  M.,  646.82  lb.  B.F. 
Sold  for  $11,000. 

Langwater  Memoir  13949.00  lb. 
M.,  639.19  lb.  B.  F.  Sold  for 
$13,000. 

Langwater  Forever  12668.40 
lb.  M.,  602.67  lb.  B.  F.  Sold  for 


Craraond  Patricia  12271.7  lb. 
M.,  594.62  lb.  B.  F. 

Brookmead's  Dorothea  12721.6 
lb.  M.,  605.56  lb.  B.F. 

Lone  Pine  Charity  13175.2  lb. 
M.,  599.92  lb.  B.  F.  Warrior's 
Lustre  of  Fernbrook  12257.2  lb. 
M.,  582.16  lb.  B.  F.  Sold  for 
$1100.  Langwater  Helpmate 
77759,  sold  for  $15,000.  Lang- 
water Eastern  King  63072,  sold 
for  $9600.  Brooklandwood  War- 
rior 45696,  sold  for  $6000. 
Cramond  Chieftain  60857,  sold 
for  $5500. 


Imp.  King  of  the  May      9001 

32  A.  R.  Daughters  including 
5  Class  Leaders.  24  A.  R.  Sons. 

Langwater  Hope  19882.0  lb. 
M.,  1003.17  1b.  B.  F. 

Langwater  Lustre  17307.2  lb. 
M.,  806.10  lb.  B.  F. 

Langwater  Heroine  805.64 
lb.  B.  F. 


Imp.  Langwater  Lily      26606 

10290.10    lb.    M.,    548.66    lb. 
B.F. 

Dam  of 

Langwater    Levity    12785.90 
lb.  M.,  662.15  lb.  B.F. 

Langwater  Amazon  11548.40 
lb.  M.,  631.99  lb.  B.  F. 


Imp.  May  Rose  King  8336 
Queen  of  the  Roses  17753.10 
lb.  M.,  852.86  lb.  B.  F.  Florham 
Daisy  14876.60  lb.  M.,  747.08 
lb.  B.  F. 


Imp.  Itchen  Daisy  III    15630 
13636.80  lb.  M.,  714.10  lb.  B. 

F.    3  A.  R.  Daughters,  3  A.  R. 

Sons. 

Langwater  Dairymaid  16949.- 

21b.  M.,  812.66  lb.  B.F. 


Imp.  Golden  Secret         12599 
15  A.  R.  Daughters,  15  A.  R. 
Sons.  Nella  Jay,  3rd      17047.20 
lb.  M.,  809.38  lb.  B.F. 


Imp.  Itchen  Lily  V  23540 

Dam    of    Langwater    Hope 

19882.0  lb.  M.,  1003.17  lb.  B.  F. 


Langwater  Phyllis  70607 

13288.40  lb.  M.,  746.23  lb.  B.  F. 
CI.  G.  3rd.  pi.  in  CI.  G.  Leaders. 
Sold  for  $10,500. 


Langwater  Fashion 

Sire  of  8  A.  R.  Daughters,  3 
A.  R.  Sons.  Langwater  Yvette 
12203.2  lb.  M.,  679.66  lb.  B.  F. 
Langwater  Glory  13182.5  lb.  M., 
647.16  lb.  B.  F.  Langwater 
Crystal  12359.2  lb.  M.,  603.53 
lb.  B.  F.  Langwater  French 
Lady  12614.5  lb.  M.,  590.10  lb. 
B.F. 


Langwater  Faithful        39949 
10489.00  lb.  M.,  492.67  lb.  B.  F. 
Dam  of 
Langwater    Phyllis    13288.40 
lb.  M.,  746.23  lb.  B.  F.  Sold  for[492.67  lb.  B.  F. 
$10,500. 


Langwater  Monarch 

4  A.  R.  Daughters,  1  A.  R. 
Son.  Langwater  Desire  A.  R. 
4877.  17086.2  lb.  M.,  817.36  lb. 
B.F. 


Langwater  Pauline         $3566 
10918.801b.  M.,  595.271b.  B.  F. 
Dam  of  2  A.  R.  Sons. 


Imp.  King  of  the  May      9001 

A.  R.  32  A.  R.  Daughters  in- 
cluding 

Langwater  Cleopatra  15364.7 
lb.  M.,  792.51  lb.  B.  F.  Sold  for 
$19,500. 
Langwater  Faith  31568 

Dam  of  Langwater  Faithful 
A.  R.     3409.       10489.00  lb.  M., 


BUYING  A  PURE  BRED  BULL 


127 


CORIUM  RAIDER'S   DURAND 

Born  August  8,  1922 
Owned  by  Larsen  Canning  Co.,  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin 


Border  Raider's  Governor 

No.  61872 

6th  prize  bull,  18  mos.  and 
under  2  yrs.,  National  Dairy 
Show,  1921. 


Imp.  Border  Raider  No.  22243 

20  A.  R.  daughters  including: 
Raider's  May  Star  of  Wadding- 
ton.  Fat  823.29  lb. 

Raider's  Rosetta  of  Wad- 
dington.    Fat  748.82  lb. 

Raider's  May  Wirt.  Fat  599.95 
lb. 

Raider's  Violet  of  Wadding- 
ton.  Fat  532.16  lb. 


Imp.  Nelly  of  Clovelly 

No.  65614 

Milk  11533.7  lb.  Fat  629.50  lb. 


Imp.  Itchen  Red  Raider 

No.  27343 

5  A.  R.  daughters  including: 
Golden  Cross  Alice  of   Linda 

Vista 

Fat  532.63  lb. 
Golden  Cross  Elois  of   Linda 

Vista 

Fat  518.85  lb. 
Raider's  Belle  of  Linda  Vista 

Fat  459.88  lb. 

Itchen  Verbena  5501 E  G  H  B 

Milk  13673.75  lb.  Fat  693.25  lb. 
2  A.  R.  sons 


Governor  of  the  Chene 

R  G  A  S  1297  P  S 

119  A.  R.  daughters  includ- 
ing: 
Imp.  Loulou's  Maid 

Fat  730.81  lb. 
Imp.  Nettie  of  the  Hubits 

Fat  718.97  lb. 
Imp.  Bon  Espoir  XII 

Fat  713.31  lb. 

Nelly  II  of  La  Croisee 

R  G  A  S  6061  P  S 
Milk  13157.0  lb.    Fat  724.84  lb. 
2  A.  R.  daughters 


Imp.  Adeline  of  St.  Croix 

No.  54122 

Milk  6994.5  lb.  Fat  336.77  lb. 
in  Class  G. 

Re-entry. 

Milk  13656.2  lb.  Fat  646.33  lb. 
in  Class  A. 

On  retest  and  promising  to 
make  about  750  lb.  Fat. 


Imp.  Flora's    Sequel   II  of 
Vimiera  No.  28603 

18  A.  R.  daughters  including: 
Imp.  Snowdrop  III  of  Havil- 
land.  Fat  707.08  lb.  Imp.  Hon. 
Lady  Jeff  of  the  Chene.  Fat 
706.5  lb.  Imp.  Adeline  of  St. 
Croix.  Fat  646.33  lb.  Imp. 
Pansy  III  of  Havilland.  Fat 
610.99  lb.  Imp.  Kiluna's  Wel- 
come. Fat  562.77  lb.  Imp. 
Queen  Mary  of  Sunnyside.  Fat 
515.48  lb. 


Favourite  of  Le  Douit  Farm 
R  G  A  S  9145  P  S 

Milk  11113.00  lb.   Fat  558.75  lb. 
Class  AA 
3  A.  R.  daughters 


Imp.  Clara's  Sequel  No. 29414 

50  A.  R.  daughters  including: 
Brownie  of  Li ii wood 
Fat  831.07  lb. 
rip.  Primrose 
III.   Fat  682.46  lb. 


Imp.  Flora  of  Vimiera 

No.  45954 

Grand    Champion,    Eastern 
Show  Circuit,  1913-14. 


Imp.  Raymond's  Emperor 

No.  15380 

4  A.  R.  daughters 
Imp.  Favourite  of  Le  Douit 

Farm.    Fat  558.75  lb. 
Imp.  Nina's  Iowa  Dairy  Girl 

Fat  490.78  lb. 
Imp.  Aurora  of  Sarnia 

Fat  398.82  lb. 


Master's  Beauty 

R  G  A  S  3474  F  R 
Commended  London  Show, 
November  12,  1908. 


128  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

194.  Buying  a  bull  for  $500. — We  believe  that  farmers  can 
aspire  to  paying  $500  for  a  bull  when  they  have  ten  pure  bred 
females.  What  does  the  pedigree  of  a  $500  bull  look  like?  At  the 
Wisconsin  State  Sale  of  Guernseys  the  bull  calf,  Corium  Raider's 
Durand  was  sold  for  $540.  His  pedigree  is  given  on  page 
127.     The  breeding  brings  together  the  blood  of  Imp.  Border 


Nellie's  Stasis  6721 
Grand  Champion  Brown  Swiss  bull  at  the  National  Dairy  Show  in  1922. 
Owned  by  L.  S.  Marshall  and  Sons,  Leslie,  Mich. 

Raider,  Governor  of  the  Chene,  and  Imp.  Clara's  Sequel,  all  of 
which  have  been  popular  bulls  with  many  advanced  registry 
daughters.  The  records  of  the  nearest  dams  are  high.  This 
pedigree  will  illustrate  what  to  look  for  in  hunting  out  a  bull. 

195.  Buying  a  bull  for  a  grade  herd. — In  buying  a  bull  to 
head  a  grade  herd  perhaps  it  will  be  well  to  look  for  a  bull  from 
less  popular  blood  lines,  but  production  should  not  be  lost  sight 
of.  The  thing  to  do  is  to  buy  the  best  one  can  afford.  Take  plenty 
of  time  and  consult  as  many  persons  as  possible  so  as  to  learn 


BUYING  A  PURE  BRED  BULL 


129 


where  bulls  are  for  sale  in  order  to  get  a  choice.  Sometimes  bulls 
will  be  farmed  out  by  breeders  who  wish  to  see  how  they  may 
develop  or  how  their  dams  may  test  before  selling.  In  this  way 
the  service  of  a  son  of  a  great  sire  from  an  untested  dam  may  be 
secured  for  a  time  for  his  keep. 


Hawthorn  Dairy  Maid  6753 
Champion  Brown  Swiss  cow  in  both  milk  and  butter  fat.    Yearly  record, 
22,622.6  pounds  of  milk,  927.23  pounds  of  butter  fat.    Owned  by  Hawthorn 
Farms,  Lake  County,  111. 

196.  Type  and  individuality. — A  dairy  bull  should  be  long, 
deep  and  rather  angular.  Especially  should  he  have  marked  con- 
stitutional vigor.  The  chest  should  be  particularly  deep  and  the 
front  legs  should  be  far  enough  apart  to  give  good  width  of  chest 
with  the  ribs  well  sprung.  He  should  have  no  heaviness  or  coarse- 
ness in  the  withers  and  shoulders,  beyond  that  which  goes  with 
his  sex  character.    A  bull,  of  course,  does  not  have  as  fine  withers 


130  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

as  a  cow.  The  neck  will  be  heavier  than  that  of  the  dairy  cow 
and  should  show  some  arch.  The  throat  will  be  fuller  and  the 
head  somewhat  heavier  with  thicker  and  shorter  horns.  The  face 
and  eyes  and  muzzle  should  exhibit  many  of  the  same  character- 
istics as  found  in  the  dairy  cow. 

A  bull  does  not  have  the  same  wedge  shape  that  is  found  in  the 
dairy  cow,  but  he  must  have  the  same  straight  back.  The  hips 
will  not  be  as  prominent  nor  the  rump  quite  so  wide.  He  must 
have  a  strong  back  and  there  must  be  no  droop  in  the  rump  or  sag- 
in  the  loin.  A  bull  must  show  no  tendency  to  lay  on  flesh.  This  is 
very  important.  The  hind-quarters  should  be  lean  and  muscular 
and  the  thighs  not  fleshy  but  well  separated.  Good  depth  of  flank 
in  front  of  the  thighs  is  a  fine  thing  to  see. 

197.  Size. — Large  size  is  to  be  preferred  if  it  is  associated  with 
quality  and  not  with  exceedingly  large  bone  and  coarseness.  Size 
and  weight  should  not  be  secured  through  fleshiness. 

A  dairy  bull  should  show  an  active,  nervous  disposition  with 
little  evidence  of  sluggishness.  Sluggishness  in  a  young  bull  is 
likely  to  indicate  that  he  will  take  little  exercise  and  will  be  slow 
in  service  as  he  gets  older. 

Many  of  the  readers  of  this  book  will  probably  be  forced  to 
choose  their  bulls  while  the  animals  are  young  which  makes  the 
problem  doubly  hard.  Therefore,  in  the  young  calves,  look  for 
indications  of  constitution,  capacity  and  quality.  Long,  level, 
wide  rumps  and  comparatively  thin  thighs  must  be  insisted  upon. 

198.  See  the  dam.— Wherever  possible,  the  dam  of  the  bull 
should  be  seen,  and,  of  course,  the  pedigree  should  be  studied  and 
if  money  is  available  a  bull  should  be  purchased  with  as  high  a 
record  on  the  part  of  the  dam,  maternal  grandam  and  dam  of  the 
sire  as  can  be  found.  The  records  of  the  dams  close  up  in  the  pedi- 
gree are  the  ones  likely  to  have  the  most  influence  and  certainly  as 
much  as  possible  should  be  found  out  about  the  individualit}'  of 
the  first  four  animals  in  the  pedigree,  as  it  is  possible  to  find  out. 
Particularly,  should  one  find  out  about  the  conformation  of  the 
udders  of  the  nearest  dams;  whether  their  fore-udders  were  well 
developed;  whether  the  quality  of  the  udder  is  right  and  placing 


BUYING  A  PURE  BRED  BULL  131 

of  the  teats  and  things  of  that  sort  are  right  in  the  dam,  and  the 
placing  of  the  rudimentary  teats  on  the  bull  calf  himself. 

The  importance  of  the  bull  in  the  herd  must  always  be  em- 
phasized. He  is  by  far  the  most  important  and  valuable  animal  on 
the  dairy  farm,  and  better  dairying  will  come  about  on  farms  more 
quickly  through  the  use  of  good  dairy  sires  than  in  any  other  way. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

FEEDING,   DEVELOPING   AND   EXERCISING   THE 
HERD   BULL 

Much  has  been  written  about  the  feeding,  care  and  manage- 
ment of  the  dairy  cow,  but  writers  as  a  rule  do  not  pay  much 
attention  to  the  herd  bull.  He  is  rarely  appreciated  until  he  will 
not  get  the  cows  in  calf  or  until  he  has  a  daughter  or  two  which 
turn  out  exceptionally  well.  When  this  happens  then  he  will  be 
looked  after  more  carefully.    Often  it  is  the$i  too  late. 

199.  Bull  one-half  the  herd. — This  is  an  old  saying,  probably 
overworked,  but  it  is  one  of  the  truths  that  we  should  really  try 
to  learn  and  appreciate.  He  may  be  even  more  than  half  the  herd 
if  he  is  found  to  be  valuable  and  then  is  used  on  some  of  his  own 
daughters  in  inbreeding  or  used  on  relatives  in  line  breeding. 
Anyhow,  it  is  certainly  true  that  a  bull  contributes  in  the  long 
run  one-half  the  makeup  of  a  herd  as  his  daughters  come  into  the 
herd.  For  example,  if  one  herd  is  made  up  of  20  daughters  of 
one  bull,  that  bull  will  have  furnished  one-half  of  the  blood  found 
in  that  herd,  whereas  it  has  taken  20  dams  to  make  up  the 
other  half.  Therefore,  the  contribution  of  any  single  dam  has  been 
only  one-twentieth  of  the  blood  of  the  present  herd.  Whether  she 
were  a  poor  or  good  individual,  she  would  have  influenced  only  one 
out  of  the  20,  whereas  the  bull,  good  or  poor,  would  have  in- 
fluenced each  and  every  one  of  the  20. 

200.  Bull  the  source  of  fastest  improvement.— Therefore, 
we  easily  see  that  the  bull  is  always  the  source  of  the  quickest 
improvement.  Again,  the  bull  will  have  a  great  influence  in  making 
the  herd  uniform,  because  his  daughters  should  be  more  uniform 
than  their  dams.  For  these  reasons  let  us  pay  attention  to  the 
selection  and  care  and  management  of  our  bulls. 

201.  Feeding  the  young  bull. — For  the  first  six  months  the 
feeding  and  care  of  the  bull  calves  will  not  be  materially  different 
from  the  treatment  of  the  heifer  calves.  (Chapter  IV)     The  main 

132 


FEEDING  AND  EXERCISING  THE  HERD  BULL      133 

thing  is  to  keep  them  growing.  A  little  fat  will  do  no  harm.  We 
are  taught  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  acquired  characteristics 
that  can  be  transmitted,  but  we  believe  that  environment  and 
feeding  and  care  will  have  something  to  do  with  the  offspring. 
An  underfed,  undersized  bull  will  not  have  as  large,  well-developed 
daughters  as  a  bull  will  have  if  he  has  been  well  grown  and  has 
attained  a  desirable  size  and  stretch  for  his  breed.  Therefore,  let 
us  grow  out  our  young  bulls  properly.  The  best  treatment  is 
raising  them  on  nurse  cows.  A  good  nurse  cow  will  raise  two  good 
calves  if  she  is  well  fed  and  for  valuable  animals  this  method 
cannot  be  beaten.  The  next  best  way  to  raise  the  calf  is  on  skim 
milk,  hay  and  grain. 

202.  Management  as  yearling.— The  bull  calves  must  be 
separated  from  the  heifers  at  six  months  of  age  because  they  will 
annoy  the  heifers  then  and  some  young  heifers  are  very  preco- 
cious and  might  breed  soon  after  this  age.  Therefore,  it  is  better 
to  be  safe. 

From  six  months  on  the  young  bull  may  have  silage  and  hay 
and  grain  enough  to  keep  him  growing  well.  One  hundred  pounds 
each  of  corn  meal,  wheat  bran  and  ground  oats,  and  fifty  pounds 
of  oil  meal  make  an  excellent  grain  mixture  for  bulls. 

A  young  bull  well  grown  can  be  used  at  ten  months  for  a  cow  or 
heifer  or  two,  but  it  is  better  to  delay  using  him  if  possible  until 
he  is  twelve  months  old.  Then  to  get  good  growth  he  should  be 
used  sparingly  until  he  is  two  years  old.  We  want  size.  Therefore, 
let  us  do  nothing  to  retard  growth. 

203.  Management  of  older  bulls.— It  is  best  to  ring  a  bull 
at  one  year  old.  He  is  dangerous  to  handle  as  soon  as  he  gets  any 
size  on  him  and  it  is  better  to  be  safe  than  sorry.  Bulls  that  have 
gotten  their  growth  should  be  fed  sparingly  on  silage.  Feed  them 
good  hay,  preferably  legume  hay,  and  grain.  Limit  the  silage  to 
fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  per  day.  The  grain  should  be  regulated 
by  the  service.   Bulls  serving  two  or  three  cows  a  week  need  grain. 

Bulls  can  probably  handle  as  high  as  two  hundred  cows  per 
year  if  properly  fed  and  managed,  if  the  cows  are  distributed. 
The  trouble  is  that  in  most  herds  the  calves  are  all  wanted  at  a 


134 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


particular  season,  which  makes  it  impossible  to  distribute  the 
service  to  the  best  advantage  for  the  bull.  In  no  case  should  a 
bull  serve  more  than  two  cows  in  the  same  day  and  then  these 
services  should  be  as  many  hours  apart  as  possible.  One  serv- 
ice to  one  cow  is  enough.    Two  services  cannot  possibly  help 


Exercising  the  Bull 
Special  tread  power  built  by  Lyon  Iron  Works,  Greene,  N.  Y.,  as  used  at 
Tarbell  Farms,  Smithville  Flats,  N.  Y.,  with  bull  Eminent  Secret. 

in  settling  a  cow  and  two  services  at  one  time  are  very  hard  on 
the  bull. 

204.  Exercise. — All-important  is  exercise.  There  are  many 
ways,  not  any  one  of  which  is  very  satisfactory.  The  bull  may 
have  a  half -acre  paddock  in  which  to  run  but  if  alone  he  will  not 
do  much,  particularly  when  along  in  years.  Two  bulls  together 
will  do  much  better.  Any  number  can  be  turned  together  if  they 
are  dehorned.   Some  breeders  think  dehorning  a  bull  will  decrease 


FEEDING  AND  EXERCISING  THE  HERD  BULL     135 

his  power  to  bring  about  improvement.  This  cannot  be  so.  All 
bulls  should  be  dehorned  for  safety  and  convenience  in  handling. 
A  long  wire,  to  which  he  may  be  hitched  so  that  he  can  walk 
back  and  forth,  may  help.  An  empty  beer  keg  in  his  pen  will  give 
him  something  to  butt  around.  Probably,  the  best  way  is  to  drive 
him  or  to  use  him  in  a  tread  power.  Certainly  a  bull  will  breed 
better  if  he  is  kept  down  in  weight  and  is  exercised  regularly.  It 
is  an  axiom  that  all  animals  will  be  improved  in  their  breeding 
powers,  if  regularly  worked  or  exercised. 

205.  Housing. — Except  in  severe  weather  the  bull  needs 
nothing  more  than  an  open  shed  that  will  protect  him  from  the 
wind.  A  bull  pen  off  from  his  paddock  with  the  door  open  at  all 
times  will  keep  him  in  better  physical  condition  than  if  penned  or 
tied  in  the  barn. 

The  objection  to  this  is  that  he  will  look  unkempt  and  shaggy. 
It  is  better  for  him  and  we  can  forgive  him  his  looks  if  he  will  give 
us  good  daughters  and  sons.  Judge  the  looks  of  a  proven  sire  in 
his  daughters  and  sons,  and  not  through  his  own  appearance, 
particularly  if  he  is  a  little  thin  but  good  and  lively.  Much  time 
is  lost  through  the  use  of  impotent  bulls. 

206.  Have  the  bull  examined. — If  your  cows  are  not  getting 
with  calf  easily  it  may  be  that  the  bull  is  impotent.  If  there  is 
any  serious  delay,  or  cows  have  to  be  served  more  than  once,  it 
is  certainly  good  practice  to  have  the  semen  of  the  bull  examined 
to  see  if  the  spermatozoa  are  alive  and  motile.  The  trouble  may 
all  be  in  the  bull  even  if  he  does  appear  to  be  lively  and  serves 
the  cows  promptly. 

Lastly,  do  not  overlook  the  importance  of  the  bull.  He  is 
entitled  to  more  care  than  just  the  care  of  one  individual  in  the 
herd.  His  care  is  all-important  because  improvement  cannot  go 
on  without  him. 


Part   IV 
DAIRY  FARM  PRACTICE 


CHAPTER  XV 
GOOD   BREEDING   PRACTICES 

There  are  two  ways  to  build  up  a  herd.  One  is  by  purchase  of 
all  the  cows  and  then  keeping  the  numbers  good  by  continued 
buying.  The  other  is  by  the  use  of  a  pure  bred  bull  and  the  raising 
of  daughters  to  replace  the  cows  that  must  be  discarded.  It  seems 
to  us  that  this  latter  practice  is  the  only  good  one  for  the  solid, 
successful  farmer.  To  be  sure,  a  man  is  pitting  himself  against 
odds  in  selecting  bulls  to  maintain  the  productivity  of  his  herd. 
But  it  is  the  most  fascinating  thing  in  the  world  to  select  animals 
and  mate  them  and  watch  for  the  development  and  improvement 
in  the  offspring. 

207.  The  bull  the  main  factor.— At  the  risk  of  some 
repetition  we  are  going  to  bring  in  here  again  the  importance  of  the 
sire.  To  bring  about  improvement  the  sire  must  be  better  than 
the  females  to  which  he  is  bred.  Therefore,  the  finer  and  the  higher 
the  average  of  the  females,  the  better  must  be  the  bull.  How  are 
you  going  to  know  the  value  of  the  bull  and  to  know  that  he  is 
better  than  the  females  in  the  herd?  The  answer  must  be  given 
in  two  ways.  First,  we  can  know  that  he  is  better  than  the  females 
if  he  has  produced  stock  that  have  better  records  and  are  better 
individuals  than  the  females  in  the  herd.  The  second  way  is  to 
judge  from  the  uniformity  of  his  ancestors  through  the  study  of 
the  pedigree. 

208.  The  value  of  a  proven  sire. — The  above  illustrates  the 
wonderful  thing  that  is  represented  by  a  proven  sire.  If  a  bull 
has  daughters  with  records,  either  official  records  or  cow  testing- 
association  records,  then  we  can  actually  compare  the  records  of 
these  daughters  with  the  records  of  the  females  in  our  herd  and 

136 


GOOD  BREEDING  PRACTICES 


137 


know  beforehand  what  he  will  do.  Proven  sires  are  expensive  and 
hard  to  find  but  occasionally  they  can  be  found  and  of  course  are 
the  best.  The  pedigree  form  below  shows  how  valuable  such  a 
sire  is.  This  pedigree  form  is  quoted  from  F.  R.  Marshall  in 
"Breeding  Farm  Animals,"  published  by  the  Sanders  Publishing 
Company,  Chicago,  111. 


Pedigree  Form  Showing  Relative  Importance  of  Ancestors 


Record  for  uniformly 

siring  good  stock.  .  . 

Individuality 


Record  as  a  sire 4 

Individuality 2 


Record  as  a  sire. 
Individuality.  . 
Ancestry 


Record  as  a  producer 

of  good  stock 

Individuality 


Record  as  a  producer 1 

Individuality 1 

[Ancestry 1 

Record  as  a  sire 1 

Individuality 1 

Ancestry 1 


Record  as  a  producer . 

Individuality 

[Ancestry 


[Record  as  a  sir 
Individuality. 


Record  as  a  producer 

of  good  stock 

Individuality 


[Record  as  a  sire 1 

I  Individuality 1 

I  Ancestry 1 


Record  as  a  producer. 

Individuality 

Ancestry 


Record  as  a  producer 

of  good  stock 

Individuality 


Record  as  a  sire . 
Individuality.  . 
Ancestry 


Similarity  in  type 
of  sire  and  dam. 


Record  as  a  producer. 

Individuality 

Ancestry 


24 


24=100 


209.   Judging  the  bull  from  his  ancestors. —This  suggestion 
of  Marshall's  is  very  helpful  in  selecting  the  young  bull  that  is 


138  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

to  be  saved  for  a  sire  from  one's  own  herd,  or  in  buying  a  sire 
from  another  herd.  The  value  of  the  individuality,  of  the  animal 
is  as  important  in  the  sire  as  his  record,  and  in  the  dam  of  the 
sire  the  value  of  the  individuality  is  greater  than  the  record. 
Marshall  gives  a  great  deal  of  weight  in  this  suggested  scheme 
to  the  record  of  production  of  good  stock. 

210.  A  balanced  pedigree. — This  illustration  of  a  pedigree 
shows  the  value  of  balance.  The  sire  and  dam  contribute  equally 
and  also  their  similarity  of  type  must  be  given  some  consideration. 
The  four  grandparents  contribute  only  one-half  as  much  influence 
as  the  sire  and  dam,  but  if  by  their  individuality,  records  of  pro- 
duction of  good  offspring,  and  records  of  production  of  milk  in 
the  dams,  they  can  show  uniform  high  character,  then  the  indi- 
vidual is  almost  sure  to  be  an  animal  that  can  be  depended  on. 
Strive  to  get  such  a  balanced  pedigree. 

The  influence  of  a  single  animal  in  the  generation  of  the  great- 
grandparents  is  not  important  in  the  sense  that  we  would  pay 
very  high  for  an  animal  on  the  strength  of  individual  performance 
in  that  generation.  However,  the  more  good  ones  found  back  in 
the  generation  of  the  great-grandparents,  the  better  balanced  the 
pedigree. 

211.  Heredity  and  environment. — What  a  cow  is  going  to 
contribute  to  her  calf  is  all  contained  in  a  single  little  egg  pro- 
duced in  her  ovaries  at  the  time  she  is  in  heat.  It  is  all  there. 
All  that  the  bull  is  to  transmit  to  this  calf  is  in  the  sperm  cell 
which  fertilizes  that  egg.  The  contribution  of  the  thousands  of 
individuals  for  generations  back  is  all  carried  along  into  the  new 
calf  when  this  tiny  egg  and  sperm  cell  unite.  It  is  hard  to  believe 
that  all  the  calf  can  ever  be  is  thus  passed  on  to  him  in  this  way 
from  his  dam  and  sire,  but  it  is  so.  This  is  heredity.  Environment, 
or  feeding  and  care,  can  only  develop  what  is  inherited.  We  cannot 
create  by  feeding.  We  can  only  develop.  Of  course,  heredity  is 
not  of  value  if  it  is  not  properly  developed,  but  the  important 
thing  is  that  no  care  or  management  can  amount  to  a  thing  if  the 
material  is  not  supplied  by  heredity  ready  for  proper  feeding  and 
development.     Let  us  learn  this  and  then  there  will  surely  come 


GOOD  BREEDING  PRACTICES 


139 


home  to  us  the  necessity  of  learning  to  select  the  proper  sire  first 
of  all  and  then  the  best  dams  we  can  afford  on  which  to  breed  him. 
212.  The  selection  of  the  females.— In  selecting  both  bulls 
and  cows,  size  should  be  the  first  thing  to  have  in  mind.  Indi- 
viduality is  important.  Then  try  to  have  the  herd  uniform  and 
have  an  ideal  in  selecting  the   herd.    In  buying  females,  know 


Bare  Fashion  634770 
Yearly  record  17,027.9  pounds  of  milk,  581.47  pounds  of  butter  fat.   Owned 
by  H.  E.  Tener,  Washingtonville,  N.  Y. 


the  records  if  possible.  The  time  has  come  when  we  should  always 
have  in  mind  that  we  are  buying  foundation  cows.  Therefore, 
buy  from  accredited  herds  and  from  members  of  cow  testing 
associations. 

There  is  a  thrill  in  buying  the  first  pure  bred  female.  Enjoy 
it  to  the  utmost  by  paying  a  good  price  and  get  a  good  one.  Do 
not  make  the  mistake  of  buying  a  pure  bred  female  that  is  not  the 
equal  of  the  best  grade  you  have.    If  you  do,  she  will  be  a  dis- 


140  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

appointment.    Above  all  in  this  first  pure  bred  female  get  a  good 
one  because  she  truly  is  the  foundation  cow. 

213.  Mating. — In  mating  animals  a  single  service  is  all  that 
is  necessary.  Nothing  is  accomplished  by  a  second  service.  There 
are  thousands  and  thousands  of  sperm  cells  in  the  semen  coming 
from  a  single  service  and  only  one  is  needed  to  fertilize  the  egg. 
Therefore,  protect  the  bull  by  not  overworking  him.  Try  to  dis- 
tribute the  breeding  so  that  at  no  time  will  it  be  necessary  to  use 
the  bull  twice  in  the  same  day. 

Heavy,  old  bulls  can  safely  be  used  on  young  heifers  if  a  breed- 
ing crate  is  used.  Directions  for  building  one  can  be  obtained  by 
writing  to  your  agricultural  college. 

214.  Inbreeding. — Much  has  been  said  on  this  subject,  but 
more  good  has  come  from  inbreeding  than  any  single  instrument 
in  the  hands  of  the  breeder.  Inbreeding  is  the  breeding  together  of 
related  individuals.  It  may  be  as  close  as  the  breeding  of  a  sire 
to  his  daughters  or  of  breeding  together  full  brothers  and  sisters. 
Judicious  inbreeding  can  always  be  depended  on  to  help  in  bringing 
about  uniformity  and  increased  production,  if  it  is  combined  with 
careful  selection  always  toward  the  ideal  of  greater  size,  better 
type,  and  better  production.  The  only  thing  to  remember  is  that 
bad  points  will  be  emphasized  just  as  strongly  as  good  ones. 

215.  Line  breeding. — Line  breeding  is  the  use  of  inbreeding 
among  related  animals  within  a  family  without  having  the  relation- 
ship too  close.  Line  breeding  is  illustrated  in  the  pedigree  of 
Langwater  Fearless,  page  126.  Imp.  King  of  the  May  is  the  grand- 
sire  on  the  sire's  side  and  the  great-great-grandsire  on  the  dam's 
side.  Thus,  Langwater  Fearless  is  said  to  be  line  bred  to  Imp. 
King  of  the  May  on  both  sides.  This  line  breeding  of  course  makes 
him  an  inbred  bull  also,  but  not  closely  inbred.  Such  line  breeding 
has  been  the  instrument  which  has  fixed  type  and  made  families 
famous. 

216.  Breeding  efficiency. — One  of  the  strongest  factors  in 
the  success  of  any  herd  is  breeding  efficiency.  For  the  greatest 
milk  production  we  must  have  our  cows  produce  a  calf  once  a  year. 
A  simple  record  of  the  time  each  cow  is  bred  and  the  number  of 


GOOD  BREEDING  PRACTICES 


141 


times  she  has  to  be  bred  should  be  kept.  If  she  has  to  be  bred 
more  than  once  she  should  be  looked  after  carefully.  If  several 
cows  in  the  herd  have  to  be  bred  more  than  once  the  bull  should 
be  examined.  A  good  veterinarian  should  be  a  consultant  of  the 
stock  owner  and  a  systematic  record  kept  of  the  breeding  efficiency 
of  the  herd.  Forms  are  not  important  so  long  as  it  is  possible 
from  a  simple  record  to  know  just  where  each  cow  stands.  The 
following  is  a  gestation  table  which  will  make  it  possible  to  work 
out  and  know  just  when  each  cow  is  due  to  come  in. 


Gestation  Table  for 

Dairy  Cows 

Date 
of 

Due 
to 

Date 
of 

Due 

to 

1  Date 
of 

Due 

to 

Date 
of 

Due 
to 

Date 
of 

Due 

to 

Date 
of 

Due 

to 

serv- 
ice 

calve 

serv- 
ice 

calve 

serv- 
ice 

calve 

serv- 
ice 

calve 

serv- 
ice 

calve 

serv- 
ice 

calve 

Jan. 

Oct. 

Mar. 

Dec. 

May 

Feb. 

July 

Apr. 

Sept. 

June 

Nov. 

Aug. 

1 

10 

1 

8 

1 

7 

1 

9 

1 

10 

1 

10 

3 

12 

3 

10 

3 

9 

3. 

11 

3 

12 

3 

12 

5 

14 

5 

12 

5 

11 

5 

13 

5 

14 

5 

14 

7 

16 

7 

14 

7 

13 

7 

15 

7 

16 

7 

16 

9 

18 

9 

16 

9 

15 

9 

17 

9 

18 

9 

18 

11 

20 

11 

18 

11 

17 

11 

19 

11 

20 

11 

20 

13 

22 

13 

20 

13 

19 

13 

21 

13 

22 

13 

22 

15 

24 

15 

22 

15 

21 

15 

23 

15 

24 

15 

24 

17 

26 

17 

24 

17 

23 

17 

25 

17 

26 

17 

26 

19 

28 

19 

26 

19 

25 

19 

27 

19 

28 

19 

28 

21 

30 

21 

28 

21 

27 

21 

29 

21 

30 

21 

30 

Nov. 

23 

30 

Mar. 

May 

July 

Sept. 

23 

1 

Jan. 

23 

1 

23 

1 

23 

2 

23 

1 

25 

3 

25 

1 

25 

3 

25 

3 

25 

4 

25 

3 

27 

5 

27 

3 

27 

5 

27 

5 

27 

6 

27 

5 

29 

7 

29 

5 

29 

7 

29 

7 

29 

8 

29 

7 

31 

9 

31 

Apr. 

7 

31 

June 

9 

31 

Aug. 

9 

Feb. 

Oct. 

Dec. 

1 

10 

1 

8 

1 

10 

1 

10 

1 

10 

1 

9 

3 

12 

3 

10 

3 

12 

3 

12 

3 

12 

3 

11 

5 

14 

5 

12 

5 

14 

5 

14 

5 

14 

5 

13 

7 

16 

7 

14 

7 

16 

7 

16 

7 

16 

7 

15 

9 

18 

9 

16 

9 

18 

9 

18 

9 

18 

9 

17 

11 

20 

11 

18 

11 

20 

11 

20 

11 

20 

11 

19 

13 

22 

13 

20 

13 

22 

13 

22 

13 

22 

13 

21 

15 

24 

15 

22 

15 

24 

15 

24 

15 

24 

15 

23 

17 

26 

17 

24 

17 

26 

17 

26 

17 

26 

17 

25 

19 

28 

19 

26 

19 

28 

19 

28 

19 

28 

19 

27 

21 

30 

21 

28 

21 

30 

21 

30 

21 

30 

21 

29 

Dec. 

23 

30 

Apr. 

June 

Aug. 

Oct. 

23 

2 

Feb. 

23 

1 

23 

1 

23 

1 

23 

1 

25 

4 

.25 

1 

25 

3 

25 

3 

25 

3 

25 

3 

27 

6 

27 

3 

27 

5 

27 

5 

27 

5 

27 

5 

29 

8 

29 

5 

29 

7 

29 

7 

29 

7 

29 

7 

31 

9 

31 

9 

31 

9 

142  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

217.  Records  of  production. — It  is  easy  to  distinguish  from 
their  conformation  between  the  cows  that  will  produce  365  pounds 
of  fat  in  a  year  from  those  that  will  produce  only  200  pounds,  but 
it  is  not  possible  to  pick  out  those  that  will  produce  500  pounds 
in  a  year  from  those  that  will  produce  360.  Therefore,  consistent 
records  of  production  are  necessary  as  an  aid  to  selection.  We 
believe  in  cow  testing  associations  because  they  help  in  many 
ways.  The  milk  of  every  cow  should  be  weighed  at  every  milking. 
It  will  help  in  selection  and  it  will  help  in  feeding.  We  know  of 
no  good  breeding  practice  that  will  be  as  stimulating  as  weighing 
and  recording  the  production  of  individual  cows  every  milking. 

Advanced  registry  testing  with  purebreds  is  to  be  advised  just 
as  soon  as  one  can  possibly  get  to  it.  It  is  expensive  but  will  pay 
for  itself  as  soon  as  one  is  established. 

218.  Milking  three  times  a  day. — When  one  is  established 
and  has  gotten  his  herd  going  well,  it  is  worth  while  and  will  pay 
to  milk  three  times  a  day  all  cows  that  produce  over  40  pounds  per 
day  for  Holsteins  or  30  pounds  per  day  for  cows  testing  over  four 
per  cent  butter  fat.  (42) 

219.  General  effect  of  good  breeding. — The  best  crop  on  the 
farm  is  the  boys  and  girls.  Mr.  George  M.  Rommel,  former  chief 
of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  says,  "Why  cloud  a  boy's 
dreams  with  poor  stock?  Give  the  youngsters  well  bred  pigs, 
calves,  sheep  and  chickens."  This  will  be  giving  the  children  the 
proper  environment  to  develop  to  its  best  the  heredity  that  is  in 
them  and  they  are  entitled  to  that  environment. 

220.  Outside  help. — The  breed  associations,  whose  addresses 
are  on  pages  95  and  96,  maintain  extension  departments  through 
which  record  forms  can  be  obtained  at  cost.  This  is  the  best  place 
to  get  them.  These  forms  are  for  keeping  breeding  records  and 
production  records  in  the  best  manner  for  that  particular  breed. 

Every  breeder  should  subscribe  for  his  breed  paper  and  at  least 
one  good  farm  paper.  He  should  be  a  member  of  his  farm  bureau 
and  a  member  of  his  county  breed  association  and  his  state  breed 
association.  All  these  things  help.  We  must  all  help  out  in  our 
community  life  and  in  the  welfare  of  the  state. 


GOOD  BREEDING  PRACTICES  143 

Community  breeding  is  being  worked  out  in  a  large  way  with 
Langwater  Fearless  in  Columbia  County,  Pennsylvania.  It  is 
reported  (May,  1923)  that  30  selected  cows  are  safe  in  calf  to  him 
and  it  is  hoped  to  have  400  selected  cows  in  calf  to  him  in  the  next 
five  years.  (191) 

Professor  H.  H.  Wing  of  Cornell  University  says:  "When  we 
have  pure  bred  chickens,  pure  bred  sheep,  pure  bred  hogs,  pure 
bred  horses  and  pure  bred  cattle,  then  we  will  have  pure  bred  men 
and  women  and  that  is  what  we  all  want." 


CHAPTER   XVI 

THE   CONTROL   OF   TUBERCULOSIS 

221.  General  herd  sanitation. — The  profitable  dairy  herd 
must  be  made  up  of  sound,  healthy  cattle.  The  diseased  animal  is 
not  an  efficient  producer  and  such  an  animal  is  frequently  a  menace 
to  the  herd  through  the  spread  of  the  disease  to  others.  The  first 
essential  for  a  healthy  herd  is  the  practice  of  sanitation — that  is, 
keeping  disease  away  from  the  herd  in  so  far  as  possible,  and  pre- 
venting its  spread  when  it  does  get  in,  by  the  use  of  whatever 
measures  the  nature  of  the  specific  disease  may  require.  The 
successful  dairyman  must  practice  disease  prevention.  The  cure 
of  disease  falls  primarily  in  the  realm  of  the  veterinarian  and  his 
services  should  be  sought  wherever  the  value  of  the  animal  justifies 
it.  The  good  dairyman  should  know  how  to  recognize  the  symp- 
toms of  the  common  ailments,  since  many  of  them  will  respond 
to  simple  remedies  which  he  can  apply.  Others  require  the  serv- 
ices of  a  veterinarian.  Even  the  simplest  troubles  may  develop 
to  the  point  where  a  veterinarian  must  be  called  if  the  animal  is  to 
be  cured.  Thus  a  knowledge  of  symptoms  will  help  one  to  decide 
when  a  veterinarian  should  be  called. 

As  regards  general  sanitation,  the  following  will  help  keep  the 
herd  healthy:  plenty  of  good,  clean,  palatable  feed;  light,  well- 
ventilated,  dry  quarters;  clean  stables,  stalls  and  mangers,  and 
plenty  of  fresh,  clean  water. 

222.  The  tuberculosis  problem. — Everyone  is  familiar  with 
the  strenuous  campaign  that  is  being  waged  against  bovine  tuber- 
culosis. This  disease  has  spread  from  herd  to  herd  and  from  animal 
to  animal  until  its  annual  toll  has  reached  enormous  figures.  Not 
only  is  the  disease  a  serious  menace  to  the  dairy  industry,  but  also 
it  is  taking  its  toll  of  human  lives  by  its  transmission  to  babies 
through  infected  milk.  It  is  high  time  that  tuberculosis  is  stamped 
out.  That  success  here  is  possible  has  been  shown  by  the  results 
of  the  nation-wide  plan  for  cleaning  up  the  disease  started  five 

144 


THE  CONTROL  OF  TUBERCULOSIS  145 

years  ago.  Its  complete  eradication  can  only  come  through  united 
action.  To  get  this  action  every  dairyman  must  understand  why 
sound  and  profitable  dairying  demands  that  his  herd  be  free  from 
tuberculosis. 

223.  The  losses.— The  disease  takes  a  regular  toll  by  death 
from  herds  where  it  has  become  established.  Long  before  death  it 
lowers  the  usefulness  of  the  animal  and  makes  her  an  unprofitable 
producer.  Once  tuberculosis  gets  into  the  herd  it  spreads  from 
animal  to  animal.  The  calves  become  infected  through  the  milk 
and  the  pigs  also  fall  victims  if  fed  dairy  by-products.  Tubercu- 
losis destroys  the  reputation  of  the  herd,  making  it  difficult  to  sell 
either  the  animals  or  the  milk.  An  animal  showing  physical  signs 
of  tuberculosis  has  practically  no  market  either  for  milk  production 
or  breeding.  More  and  more  buyers  are  demanding  animals 
shown  by  test  to  be  free  from  the  disease.  With  the  realization  of 
the  possibility  of  the  spread  of  the  infection  to  children  through 
the  milk,  the  consumer  is  commencing  to  demand  milk  from  tuber- 
culosis-free herds  and  public  health  officials  are  giving  this  subject 
increasing  attention. 

224.  Nature  and  symptoms.— Tuberculosis  in  cattle  is 
similar  to  the  disease  in  man.  It  is  caused  by  a  germ  which  grad- 
ually eats  away  the  tissues  of  the  body.  The  process  may  go  on 
for  four  or  five  years  before  the  presence  of  the  disease  can  be 
recognized  by  any  physical  or  external  symptoms.  The  germ  gets 
into  the  body  in  the  air  breathed  in  or  may  be  taken  in  with  the 
feed.  When  breathed  in,  it  goes  directly  to  the  lungs  which  we 
frequently  think  of  as  the  principal  seat  of  the  disease,  and  from 
the  lungs  gets  into  the  blood.  When  taken  in  with  the  feed  it  gets 
into  the  blood  through  the  digestive  tract.  Once  the  germ  gets  into 
the  blood,  any  part  of  the  body  may  be  attacked.  Thus,  we 
have  tuberculosis  of  the  joints,  of  the  udder,  etc.,  as  well  as  of 
the  lungs. 

225.  How  the  disease  starts. — The  germs  float  around  on  the 
dust  in  the  air  and  may  live  in  the  cracks  of  the  mangers  and  in 
other  places  around  the  barn  for  months.  These  germs  must  come 
from  some  animal  which  is  giving  them  off.   The}-  are  given  off  in 


146 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


the  manure,  in  material  coughed  up  and  in  the  milk  from  a  tuber- 
cular udder.  The  disease  of  the  udder  is  not  very  common  but 
when  it  does  occur  it  is  a  sure  method  of  passing  the  disease  on  to 
the  calves,  swine  and  humans  receiving  the  milk  therefrom,  unless 
it  is  pasteurized.  The  milk  may  also  contain  the  germs  from 
infected  manure  getting  into  it.  There  are  periods  when  the  germs 
are  being  given  off  by  a  diseased  animal  and  periods  when  they 


Count  Tickford  738427 

Grand  Champion  bull  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Show,  1922.   Owned 
by  F.  W.  Sullivan,  Battle  Creek,  Mich. 


are  not,  but  one  cannot  recognize  these  different  periods;  thus  a 
tuberculous  animal  must  be  considered  as  a  constant  menace  to 
the  rest  of  the  herd.  Infection  is  spread  from  cow  to  cow  through 
a  common  watering  trough,  through  germs  in  the  air  breathed  or 
coughed  up  by  an  infected  animal,  and  through  the  manger.  If  a 
sound  animal  eats  from  a  manger  recently  used  by  a  diseased  one, 
infection  is  sure.  The  use  of  mangers  without  partitions  makes  the 
spread  of  the  disease  more  certain.   Watering  the  cows  by  running 


THE  CONTROL  OF  TUBERCULOSIS  147 

the  water  down  through  a  common  manger  is  an  almost  certain 
way  of  passing  on  the  disease  to  animals  drinking  the  water  after 
an  infected  one. 

The  disease  may  be  brought  into  a  herd  by  the  purchase  of 
infected  animals.  The  feeding  of  unpasteurized  skim  milk  and 
whey  from  creameries  and  cheese  factories  to  calves  and  pigs 
frequently  brings  in  the  disease.  If  these  products  are  properly 
pasteurized  they  are  safe  to  feed.  A  healthy  herd  may  become 
infected  through  mingling  with  diseased  animals  at  the  fairs  or  by 
occupying  premises  previously  occupied  by  infected  animals  and 
not  disinfected.  Similarly,  infection  may  result  from  shipment 
in  contaminated  cars. 

226.  Physical  symptoms  not  marked. — It  has  been  men- 
tioned that  a  cow  may  have  the  disease  for  years  before  physical 
sjrmptoms  are  evident.  In  the  advanced  stage  there  may  be 
coughing  and  sometimes  there  is  lameness  due  to  the  joints  being 
affected.  The  cow  generally  has  a  dull  eye,  a  rough  coat,  a  droop- 
ing head  and  shows  loss  of  weight.  But  these  symptoms  are  not 
satisfactory  for  detecting  the  disease.  By  the  time  they  have 
become  evident  the  animal  may  have  spread  the  disease  through- 
out the  herd,  as  well  as  having  been  a  liability  for  some  time  as 
regards  production. 

227.  The  tuberculin  test. — Fortunately  we  have  in  the  tuber- 
culin test  a  method  which  will  detect  tuberculosis  in  its  earliest 
stages.  The  method  is  not  perfect  but  it  certainly  has  proved  so 
valuable  that  a  man  is  foolish  to  disregard  it. 

228.  Control  and  eradication. — The  first  step  for  the  inter- 
ested dairyman  is  to  find  out  whether  he  has  any  diseased  animals 
in  his  herd.  This  is  done  through  the  tuberculin  test.  An  animal 
which  is  shown  to  have  the  disease  by  this  test  is  called  a  reactor. 
Where  reactors  are  found  they  must  be  removed  from  the  herd. 
Next  the  barn  must  be  thoroughly  disinfected  to  get  rid  of  germs 
present.  Finally  the  herd  must  be  so  handled  as  to  prevent  future 
contamination.  This  is  an  outline  of  the  method  of  getting  rid  of 
tuberculosis.  The  details  will  be  brought  out  by  a  discussion  of 
the  accredited  herd  plan. 


148  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

229.    The  accredited  herd  plan. — This  is  a  plan  adopted  in 

1917  to  be  used  as  a  nation-wide  program  for  the  stamping  out  of 

tuberculosis.   It   provides   for   co-operation   between  the   United 

States  Government  and  the  various  states  both  as  to  financial 

support  for  carrying  out  the  program  and  as  to  its  supervision. 

To  accredit  a  herd  as  free  from  tuberculosis  means  to  certify 

officially  that  the  owner  has  complied  with  certain  specific  rules 

laid  down  in  the  plan.    These  rules  specify  that  an  accredited 

herd  is  one  that  has  been  tuberculin  tested  under  the  supervision 

of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  or  of  a  state  official,  and  found 

to  have  no  animals  showing  the  disease  upon  two  annual  or  three 

semi-annual  tests  and  upon  physical  examination.    It  is  further 

provided  that  where  reactors  are  found  they  must  be  removed 

either  by  slaughter  or  segregation  and  that  two  more  tests  show- 

s    SfS  no  further  reactors  are  required.    A  thorough  disinfection  of 

•^  *^me  barn  is  also  required.   All  milk  and  other  dairy  products  fed  to 

^    ©  calves  must  come  from  tuberculin  tested  cows  or  else  be  pasteur- 

kj   ^  ized.    Xo  cattle  can  be  added  to  the  herd  unless  they  have  passed 

^    "g*  certain  specified  tests.    Compliance  with  the  above  rules  entitles 

fc  <Jb*    the  owner  to  an  official  certificate — " Tuberculosis-free  Herd" — 

9  ^  •     good  for  one  year  and  renewable  at  the  end  of  that  time  if  all  the 

^*     animals  again  pass  the  test. 

i^J  230.    Payment  for  losses. — The  feature  of  this  plan  which 

makes  many  owners  hesitate  to  adopt  it  is  the  probable  loss  due  to 
the  removal  of  reactors.  It  is  possible  to  retain  them  by  keeping 
them  entirely  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  herd  and  this  may  be 
done  to  advantage  with  animals  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease 
and  of  special  value  for  breeding  purposes.  However,  many 
problems  of  management  arise  here  and  all  reactors  should  be 
headed  toward  slaughter.  Most  owners  want  the  reactors  killed 
at  once  and  out  of  the  way.  To  compensate  for  these  losses,  the 
Federal  Government  pays  a  certain  indemnity  for  each  animal 
slaughtered.  Most  of  the  states  also  pay  a  further  indemnity,  with 
the  result  that  unless  the  animals  are  especially  valuable  the  owner 
may  actually  lose  little.  The  possible  loss  varies  greatly  in  different 
states  according  to  the  amount  of  indemnity  provided.    However, 


THE  CONTROL  OF  TUBERCULOSIS  149 

no  man  who  is  making  dairying  a  business  can  afford  to  hesitate 
on  this  account,  for  over  a  period  of  ten  years  he  will  be  money 
ahead  by  cleaning  up  his  herd  even  if  his  reactors  are  largely  a 
dead  loss. 

231.    Area  work. — We  cannot  go  into  details  as  to  the  actual 
working  of  the  accredited  herd  plan  because  it  varies  in  different 


Melba  15th  of  Darbalara 

World's  Champion  Milking  Shorthorn  Cow.  Yearly  record  29,423  pounds 
of  milk,  1316  pounds  of  butter  fat.  Owned  by  Scottish-Australian  Investment 
Company,  Gundagia,  New  South  Wales,  Australia. 

states.  Generally  it  is  preferred  to  clean  up  by  intensive  campaigns 
in  small  areas,  such  as  counties  or  townships  aiming  at  testing 
every  herd  in  the  area,  rather  than  by  disconnected  work  all  over 
the  state.  The  area  system  stimulates  local  interest  and  a  clean 
herd  in  a  clean  area  has  a  better  chance  of  remaining  clean  than 
where  surrounded  by  infected  animals. 


150  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

232.  Owners  must  help. — The  value  of  the  area  system  is, 
however,  being  overemphasized.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  accredited  herd  plan  is  only  a  method  of  helping  the  owner 
clean  up  and  of  giving  him  recognition  when  he  has  done  it.  No 
plan,  no  matter  how  good  or  how  well  directed,  will  succeed  unless 
the  owner  has  the  desire  and  the  ability  to  carry  it  out.  Desire 
which  is  stimulated  by  indemnities  is  not  the  kind  that  will  result 
in  clean  herds.  Under  the  present  accredited  herd  plan,  which 
places  insufficient  emphasis  on  the  attitude  and  ability  of  the 
owner,  money  is  being  paid  to  owners  who  never  will  clean  up 
their  herds  and  keep  them  clean.  This  is  a  big  objection  to  the 
area  plan.  No  area  will  remain  clean  except  by  the  intelligent  and 
constant  effort  of  every  owner.  The  area  plan  may  ignore  owners 
sufficiently  interested  and  intelligent  to  make  a  clean-up  successful, 
because  they  are  not  in  areas  being  worked,  and  waste  time  and 
money  on  other  owners,  who  have  no  qualifications  except  being 
in  the  path  of  the  projected  clean-up.  The  idea  of  the  accredited 
herd  plan  is  fine  but  its  absolute  dependence  for  success  upon  the 
individual  owner  should  be  realized  by  everyone,-  not  only  in  clean- 
ing up  his  own  herd,  but  also  in  supporting  the  working  out  of  the 
plan  in  his  state  and  locality. 

233.  The  Tompkins  County  plan.— This  is  a  modification 
of  the  accredited  herd  plan  being  tried  out  in  Tompkins  County, 
New  York.  One  bad  feature  of  the  accredited  herd  plan  is  that 
the  testing  must  be  done  by  a  state  or  federal  veterinarian  or  no 
federal  indemnity  is  received.  Thus,  the  local  veterinarian  whose 
services  the  dairyman  prefers  and  who  is  entitled  to  do  the  work, 
provided  he  is  properly  qualified,  is  discriminated  against.  To 
overcome  this  objectionable  feature  there  has  been  organized  the 
Tompkins  County  Accredited  Herd  Co-operative  Association, 
Inc.,  which  has  entered  into  an  agreement  with  state  and  federal 
authorities  whereby  the  testing  may  be  done  by  properly  accredited 
local  veterinarians  without  loss  of  federal  indemnity.  This  plan 
localizes  the  responsibility  of  conduct  and  supervision.  The  work- 
ing out  of  this  plan  should  be  watched  with  interest  and  if  success- 
ful should  commend  itself  to  other  localities.   Further  details  of  the 


THE  CONTROL  OF  TUBERCULOSIS  151 

plan  can  be  obtained  by  writing  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Department  of  Farms  and  Markets,  Albany,  New  York. 

234.  Should  every  owner  test?— We  have  stressed  the  desir- 
ability of  eliminating  tuberculosis  and  have  stated  in  general 
terms  that  a  clean  herd  is  an  essential  of  profitable  dairying.  Now 
that  we  have  discussed  the  losses  due  to  disease,  described  the 
working  of  the  accredited  herd  plan  for  cleaning  up  and  indicated 
the  cost  involved,  let  us  face  the  question  as  to  whether  every 
owner  should  plan  to  apply  the  tuberculin  test  and  test  his  herd  at 
once.  This  is  difficult  to  answer  because  conditions  differ  in 
different  states  and  areas  and  because  each  owner  has  his  own 
special  problems,  but  we  believe  we  will  help  our  readers  most  if  we 
answer  this  question  as  definitely  as  we  can.  The  owner  of  pure 
bred  cattle  should  by  all  means  plan  to  test  at  once.  Profit  in  the 
pure  bred  business  must  rest  in  part  on  sales.  No  reliable  public 
sales  will  take  other  than  tested  animals.  In  fact,  so  many  pure 
bred  owners  are  striving  for  clean  herds  that  there  is  little  market 
for  untested  animals  even  at  private  sales.  Animals  cannot  be 
shipped  out  of  the  state  unless  tested.  Thus,  the  purebred  owner 
must  test  or  go  out  of  business. 

235.  Testing  the  grade  herd. — Where  there  is  an  opportunity 
for  a  special  market  for  milk  from  a  clean  herd  it  will  be  profitable 
to  test  whether  the  animals  are  purebreds  or  grades.  Where  grades 
are  being  raised  for  sale  it  is  profitable  to  test.  There  are  condi- 
tions, however,  where  it  may  not  be  profitable  to  test  a  grade  herd 
now.  Let  us  take  an  extreme  case.  Take  a  herd  in  an  area  which 
has  a  high  percentage  of  the  disease  and  where  indemnities  are 
low  and  slow  in  coming.  To  test  the  herd  means  to  lose  a  large 
part  of  it  with  no  nearby  place  from  which  to  buy  tested  cattle 
and  little  money  to  buy  them.  Assuming  that  the  milk  is  so  dis- 
posed of  as  to  be  pasteurized  before  being  consumed,  it  is  not  a 
menace  to  health,  except  possibly  to  the  young  members  of  a 
farm  family.  The  local  veterinarian  can  be  called  upon  to  locate 
an  animal  producing  milk  safe  for  the  children.  This  can  also  be 
done  for  the  calves,  or  pasteurized  skim  milk  can  be  used.  There 
are  many  owners  of  grade  herds  in  these  badly  infected  areas. 


152  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

Their  herds  should,  in  general,  be  left  until  later  when  the  area  can 
be  cleaned  up  as  a  unit  and  when  clean  cattle  are  more  available. 

What  we  have  said  above  in  no  way  denies  the  principle  that 
everyone  must  be  behind  the  clean  herd  program.  The  program 
must  be  carried  out  as  rapidly  as  public  money  is  available  and 
owners  can  stand  their  share  of  the  losses.  Because  of  the  tendency 
of  the  disease  to  spread,  and  the  losses  in  production  incurred 
with  diseased  animals,  it  certainly  is  true  that  the  men  who  have 
the  will  to  do  it  should  test  their  herds  at  once  and  get  on  a  clean 
basis. 

236.  How  to  proceed. — There  are  many  other  questions  that 
will  arise  in  the  mind  of  one  desiring  to  clean  up  his  herd.  He  will 
want  to  know  just  how  he  should  go  about  it,  how  soon  the  work 
can  be  begun  and  how  much  it  will  cost.  The  answers  to  these 
questions  will  differ  according  to  the  state  and  other  conditions. 
The  owner  desirous  of  cleaning  up  his  herd,  but  in  doubt  how  to 
proceed,  should  consult  his  Farm  Bureau  Agent  or  State  College 
of  Agriculture  for  information. 

We  can  offer  a  few  suggestions  which  may  tend  to  keep  the 
disease  from  spreading  in  a  herd  while  the  owner  is  waiting  for  the 
actual  clean-up.  In  the  first  place,  the  chance  of  further  infection 
from  without  should  be  shut  off  by  adding  no  animals  to  the  herd, 
unless  they  are  tuberculin  tested,  and  by  avoiding  the  use  of 
skim  milk  from  a  creamery  for  feeding  calves  unless  it  is  properly 
pasteurized.  The  chances  of  the  further  spread  of  the  disease 
within  the  herd  may  be  lessened  by  a  separate  manger  for  each 
animal  and  individual  drinking  cups,  and  by  seeing  that  every 
cow  has  her  own  regular  stall  and  avoiding  the  shifting  of  animals 
around.  These  same  precautions,  coupled  with  the  elimination  of 
any  animals  showing  physical  symptoms,  are  worth  while  for 
every  owner  to  follow  even  if  he  is  not  planning  to  have  his  herd 
tested  in  the  immediate  future.  But  no  one  can  hope  to  get  rid  of 
tuberculosis  except  by  the  test  method,  and  every  dairyman 
should  look  forward  to  having  his  herd  cleaned  up  by  the  accredited 
herd  plan.  It  will  pay  him  in  the  long  run,  even  if  the  first  cost 
be  high.   The  quicker  it  is  done  the  smaller  will  be  the  losses. 


THE  CONTROL  OF  TUBERCULOSIS  153 

237.  Keeping  the  herd  clean  —The  principal  things  that  an 
owner  must  do  to  keep  his  herd  clean  under  the  federal  plan  have 
been  mentioned.  We  want  to  emphasize  here  the  importance  of 
following  the  regulations  closely.  The  utmost  care  and  vigilance 
are  necessary  to  prevent  reinfection  particularly  in  areas  where 
the  disease  is  widespread.  The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised 
in  buying  in  animals.  They  should  not  be  bought  simply  on  the 
basis  of  passing  one  tuberculin  test  but  they  should  come  either 
from  accredited  herds  or  one  should  be  sure  that  the  test  is  reliable. 
Showing  at  fairs  should  be  limited  to  those  where  adequate  sani- 
taiy  regulations  safeguard  against  infection.  The  man  who  has  a 
tuberculosis-free  herd  will  win  back  the  losses  he  suffered  in  clean- 
ing up  only  if  he  keeps  it  clean.  A  clean  herd  is  an  asset  that  will 
increase  in  value  from  year  to  year.  More  and  more,  buyers  will 
demand  that  the  animals  they  purchase  shall  come  from  accredited 
herds  and  the  selling  price  of  such  animals  will  increase. 

238.  Clean  areas  ideal. — Every  owner  of  a  clean  herd  should 
be  behind  the  accredited  herd  campaign  and  should  urge  his 
neighbors  to  clean  up.  A  clean  area  means  less  chance  of  rein- 
fection and  buyers  are  going  to  purchase  in  areas  free  from  the 
disease  in  preference  to  buying  from  clean  herds  surrounded  by 
the  disease.  The  nation-wide  campaign  has  progressed  to  the  point 
where  certain  areas  are  recognized  as  fairly  free  from  tuberculosis 
and  others  as  widely  infected.  The  latter  areas  will  shortly  find 
little  market  for  their  cattle  unless  they  clean  up.  Thus,  every 
owner  of  a  clean  herd  should  strongly  support  a  campaign  for 
cleaning  up  his  community  and  state. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

ABORTION  AND  OTHER  DISEASES  INTERFERING 
WITH   BREEDING 

It  is  estimated  that  abortion  and  related  diseases  are  causing 
more  losses  to  dairy  farming  than  is  tuberculosis.  The  importance 
of  stopping  these  losses  is,  therefore,  evident.  Unfortunately, 
the  knowledge  of  how  to  do  this  is  very  incomplete  at  the  present 
time  and  we  must  state  at  the  outset  that  no  plan  can  be  offered 
which  may  be  counted  on  to  clean  up  abortion  troubles  in  the 
way  that  tuberculosis  may  be  cleaned  up.  There  are,  however, 
certain  preventive  measures  that  any  breeder  may  use  which 
will  decrease  his  losses,  and  it  is  these  measures  which  we  will 
take  up. 

239.  Definition  of  terms. — There  is  much  confusion  in  the  use 
of  terms  in  discussing  breeding  troubles  and  it  is  necessary  to  state 
at  the  outset  just  what  we  mean  by  certain  terms.  Abortion  is  the 
premature  birth  of  a  dead  calf.  The  premature  birth  of  a  live 
animal  or  the  birth  of  a  weak  or  dead  calf  at  term  are  not  abortions 
strictly  speaking,  but  they  are  related  troubles  which  may  have  a 
similar  cause.  Retained  afterbirth  commonly  goes  along  with  these 
other  troubles  and  sterility  is  a  frequent  result  of  them. 

240.  Causes  of  breeding  troubles. — Occasionally  accidents 
may  cause  premature  birth  but  this  is  not  a  very  common  cause. 
Everyone  agrees  that  abortion  is  generally  due  to  an  infection,  but 
whether  this  infection  is  due  solely  to  a  specific  organism,  B. 
abortus,  or  whether  a  variety  of  infections  may  cause  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  uterus  and  result  in  a  premature  birth  are  points 
which  are  in  debate.  Lack  of  mineral  matter  in  the  ration  has  been 
given  as  a  cause  of  breeding  troubles.  In  fact,  many  have  been 
led  to  believe  through  garbled  reports  of  experimental  work  and 
through  statements  of  unscrupulous  persons  having  mineral  mix- 
tures to  sell  that  feeding  the  proper  minerals  will  prevent  and 
cure  abortion.   This  is  untrue.   No  infectious  disease  can  be  cured 

154 


BREEDING  TROUBLES  155 

or  entirely  prevented  by  feeding,  but  the  question  of  deeding  can- 
not be  ignored  in  this  connection. 

241.  How  the  diseases  are  spread.— It  seems  clear  that 
infection  may  gain  entrance  both  through  the  feed  and  through 
the  genital  organs  and  perhaps  by  other  means.  It  is  not  known 
what  is  the  most  common  way.  Experience  indicates  that  an 
entire  herd  may  become  infected  by  a  bull  having  infected  organs; 
on  the  other  hand,  many  infections  have  occurred  where  the  bull 
quite  evidently  had  nothing  to  do  with  them.  B.  abortus,  the 
specific  organism,  has  been  found  in  the  milk  and  in  the  dis- 
charge from  the  vagina  of  cows  that  have  aborted;  thus,  these  are 
sources  of  infection. 

242.  Preventive  measures.— Since  we  know  that  abortion 
and  related  troubles  are  due  to  an  infection  but  are  not  sure  as  to 
its  source  or  method  of  spreading,  the  preventive  measures  must 
be  primarily  those  of  general  sanitation.  Cows  which  abort  or 
calve  prematurely  and  even  those  which  calve  normally  may  have 
a  discharge  from  the  vagina  which  is  dangerous  to  other  animals. 
Such  a  cow  should  be  placed  in  a  separate  pen  until  the  discharge 
has  ceased.  A  cow  should  be  so  isolated  as  soon  as  there  is  any 
evidence  that  an  abortion  or  premature  birth  is  likely  to  occur. 
If  abortion  takes  place  the  foetus  and  afterbirth  should  be  burned. 
When  a  cow  is  removed  from  the  separate  pen  after  the  discharge 
has  ceased,  the  bedding  should  be  burned  and  the  pen  scrub- 
bed and  sprayed  with  a  coal-tar  disinfectant.  This  isolation 
cannot  be  expected  to  stop  all  abortions,  for  others  will  occur 
from  cows  already  infected  and  cows  may  become  infected 
from  some  other  source.  Isolation  simply  shuts  off  one  channel 
of  infection. 

There  is  no  point  in  keeping  a  cow  that  has  aborted  isolated 
after  the  discharge  has  stopped.  It  is  true  that  she  may  retain  the 
infection  in  her  system,  but  there  is  little  danger  of  the  spread  of 
the  disease  merely  from  a  cow  being  stabled  next  to  one  that  has 
aborted.  Further,  cows  which  are  due  to  abort  may  be  giving  off 
the  infection  in  their  milk  and  thus  be  a  menace,  but  they  cannot 
be  isolated  because  they  are  not  recognized. 


156  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

243.  Infection  in  calves.— It  is  a  good  practice  not  to  feed 
milk  from  a  cow,  which  has  just  aborted,  to  calves,  since  the  specific 
organism  has  been  found  in  milk  and  since  it  may  enter  through 
the  digestive  tract.  However,  this  is  only  a  partial  safeguard 
since  cows  which  have  not  yet  aborted  may  be  infected  and  may 
infect  their  milk. 

244.  Infection  from  bull. — Since  infection  is  possible  through 
the  bull,  the  question  comes  up  as  to  what  preventive  measures 
should  be  used  with  him.  Here  we  are  handicapped  by  lack  of 
knowledge.  This  method  of  infection  is  difficult  to  combat  and 
we  do  not  know  how  big  a  factor  it  is  and  thus  how  much  it  is 
worth  while  to  try  to  do.  Some  douche  the  sheath  of  the  bull 
before  and  after  each  service.  This  could  be  done  after  instruction 
from  a  veterinarian  but  we  do  not  know  whether  it  is  worth  while 
or  not.  A  periodic  examination  of  the  bull  by  a  veterinarian  would 
help  but  we  are  not  prepared  to  say  that  the  danger  of  infection 
is  great  enough  from  this  source  to  justify  the  cost  of  the  service. 

This  brings  up  the  question  of  how  far  the  breeder  should  go 
in  getting  veterinary  service  in  connection  with  abortion.  This 
depends  on  the  value  of  the  herd  and  the  distance  from  the  vet- 
erinarian. We  believe  he  can  be  of  service  in  advising  as  to  sani- 
tary measures  to  be  carried  out,  in  examining  the  cows  and  bull, 
in  cleaning  out  the  genital  organs,  etc.,  and  that  with  the  real 
support  and  co-operation  of  the  owner  he  can  keep  the  herd  reason- 
ably free  from  the  disease. 

245.  Liberal  feeding  a  help. — Improper  feeding  cannot 
cause  an  infection  but  it  may  put  the  animal  in  such  a  condition 
as  to  be  more  susceptible  to  it.  A  properly  fed  animal  will  resist 
infection  where  a  poorly  fed  one  will  succumb.  As  regards  repro- 
duction troubles,  experience  seems  to  indicate  that  the  liberal 
feeding  of  heifers  makes  them  less  likely  to  abort.  A  cow  which 
depletes  her  reserves  during  a  heavy  and  prolonged  lactation 
should  reasonably  be  expected  to  stand  the  strain  of  calving 
better  if  these  reserves  are  built  up  during  the  dry  period.  This 
consideration  is  being  given  particular  attention  at  the  present 
time  with  respect  to  the  feeding  of  minerals.    Both  experimental 


BREEDING  TROUBLES  157 

work  and  practical  experience  indicate  that  a  continued  lack  of 
adequate  mineral  matter  may  increase  breeding  troubles.  The 
minerals  which  are  important  here  are  lime  and  phosphorus.  The 
evidence  is  not  sufficient  to  say  that  a  lack  of  these  minerals  is  an 
important  cause  of  abortion,  but  we  do  believe  that  adequate 
mineral  nutrition  should  be  considered  along  with  the  general 
question  of  feeding  to  put  the  cow  in  the  best  possible  condition 
at  calving  time.  (12,  13,  38,  89) 

246.  Retained  afterbirth.— The  afterbirth  should  normally 
drop  away  in  a  few  hours.  Cows  which  abort  are  likely  to  retain 
it.  Only  an  experienced  person  should  attempt  its  removal,  for 
if  not  properly  removed  and  at  the  proper  time,  sterility  is  apt  to 
result.  Sterility  frequently  follows  retained  afterbirth  anyway, 
but  proper  handling  of  the  afterbirth  will  decrease  the  likelihood 
of  its  occurrence.  (17) 

247.  Sterility.— Sterility  frequently  follows  the  troubles  pre- 
viously mentioned.  A  variety  of  causes  may  prevent  conception 
or  cause  the  early,  unobserved  expulsion  of  the  foetus.  Where  an 
animal  fails  to  conceive,  a  veterinarian  can  sometimes  correct  the 
trouble  and  his  services  should  be  enlisted  if  the  cow  is  of  sufficient 
value;  otherwise,  get  rid  of  her.  Get  rid  of  her  anyway  if  the 
veterinarian  fails  to  correct  the  trouble. 

248.  Cutting  down  breeding  losses.— In  summary,  we 
believe  every  breeder  can  decrease  his  breeding  troubles  by  thor- 
ough sanitary  measures.  When  an  abortion  takes  place  the  foetus 
and  afterbirth  should  be  immediately  burned.  Any  cow  which  has 
a  discharge  from  the  vagina,  even  if  she  has  calves  normally, 
should  be  placed  in  a  separate  pen  until  the  discharge  has  ceased. 
When  she  is  removed  from  the  pen,  it  should  be  scrubbed  and  dis- 
infected and  the  bedding  burned.  No  milk  from  cows  which  have 
recently  aborted  should  be  fed  to  calves.  One  should  not  buy  an 
animal  which  has  just  aborted  nor  purchase  from  a  herd  with  a 
high  record  of  abortions.  Finally,  we  believe  that  every  breeder 
that  can  possibly  afford  it  should  put  his  herd  in  the  hands  of  a 
competent  veterinarian,  for  we  do  feel  that  the  cost  of  the  service 
will  be  more  than  repaid  in  decreased  losses. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
A  FEW   COMMON   AILMENTS   OF  CATTLE 

249.  Garget. — This  is  a  disease  of  the  udder  characterized  by 
inflammation  and  swelling  and  the  production  of  stringy  and  some- 
times bloody  milk.  It  may  occur  at  any  time  either  during  the 
lactation  or  dry  period.  One  or  more* quarters  may  be  affected. 
Exposure  to  severe  weather,  lying  with  the  udder  on  a  cold  floor, 
bruises  and  overfeeding  are  the  most  frequent  causes  of  garget. 
An  infection  is  probably  always  present  in  a  gargety  udder;  thus 
the  trouble  may  be  spread  by  the  hands  of  the  milker  and  in  other 
ways. 

250.  Treatment. — Mild  cases  of  garget  if  promptly  recognized 
and  treated  can  usually  be  cured  by  home  measures.  A  physic  such 
as  a  pound  of  epsom  salts  should  be  given  and  the  grain  ration  re- 
duced by  at  least  one- half.  Follow  the  purgative  by  a  tablespoon 
of  saltpeter  each  day  for  three  days.  It  frequently  helps  to  massage 
the  udder  with  lard,  camphorated  oil  or  some  similar  oil.  The  cow 
should  be  milked  regularly  and  frequently — perhaps  as  often  as 
every  two  hours.  Catch  the  milk  in  a  pail  and  throw  it  away  out- 
side the  barn,  rather  than  let  it  go  on  the  floor  and  thus  give  the 
infection  a  chance  to  spread.  We  advise  against  the  use  of  a  milk- 
ing tube  because  of  the  danger  of  further  infection.  The  animal 
should  be  kept  in  warm  dry  quarters  and  her  ration  should  be 
laxative  and  light. 

If  the  trouble  does  not  respond  to  the  above  treatment  in  a  day 
or  two,  a  veterinarian  should  be  called.  If  the  disease  comes  on 
suddenly  and  the  udder  becomes  hot  and  tender  and  no  milk  can 
be  drawn  from  it,  it  is  best  to  call  a  veterinarian  at  once.  These 
severe  cases  are  very  likely  to  result  in  the  loss  of  a  quarter,  or 
perhaps  the  entire  udder,  for  the  rest  of  the  lactation  period,  or 
even  permanently. 

Good  bedding  will  remove  one  cause  of  garget.  Thorough 
washing  of  the  hands  after  milking  a  gargety  teat  is  essential  to 

158 


COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE  159 

prevent  the  spread  of  the  infection  to  the  other  teats  of  the  cow 
and  to  the  other  cows  of  the  herd.  The  inflammation  of  the  udder 
frequently  occurring  at  calving  is  not  the  same  thing  as  garget. 
(16,  17,  18) 

251.  Bloat. — In  this  trouble  the  paunch  fills  up  with*  gas  and 
there  is  an  excessive  distention  of  the  left  side  in  front  of  and  above 
the  flank.  Bloat  is  caused  by  eating  spoiled  feed  or  too  much 
green  feed,  particularly  when  the  cow  is  not  used  to  it.  The  trouble 
frequently  occurs  when  cows  are  first  turned  out  on  legume  pasture. 
It  may  occur  with  any  kind  of  feed.  Mild  cases  of  bloat  may  be 
relieved  by  giving  a  good  physic  and  keeping  the  animal's  mouth 
open  so  as  to  let  the  gas  escape.  If  a  piece  of  fork  handle  is  tied  in 
the  mouth  as  a  bit,  the  cow  chews  the  stick  and  gas  comes  up.  If 
a  bloated  animal  is  kept  moving  this  stimulates  the  action  of  the 
rumen  and  may  help  liberate  the  gas. 

If  none  of  the  above  remedies  relieve  the  trouble  it  is  necessary 
to  pierce  the  flank  and  let  out  the  gas,  for  if  bloat  continues  death 
may  result  from  suffocation  or  from  rupture  of  the  stomach.  For 
piercing  the  flank,  special  instruments,  a  trocar  and  cannula,  are 
needed,  but  a  pocket  knife  may  be  used  in  an  emergency.  This  is 
a  task  for  a  veterinarian,  unless  one  knows  just  how  to  do  it. 

252.  Indigestion. — This  trouble  may  result  from  a  variety  of 
causes  the  most  common  of  which  are  overeating,  spoiled  feed 
and  a  sudden  change  in  the  ration.  The  first  symptom  is  refusal 
of  food  and  frequently  the  cow  stops  chewing  her  cud.  The  manure 
is  usually  abnormal,  sometimes  hard  and  dry,  sometimes  liquid. 
In  severe  cases  the  bowels  may  refuse  to  move.  Treatment  con- 
sists of  giving  one  pound  or  one  pound  and  a  half  of  epsom  salts, 
or  a  quart  or  more  of  raw  linseed  oil.  When  the  cow  commences 
to  show  appetite  again  a  light  palatable  ration  should  be  given. 

253.  Foot  rot. — This  trouble,  also  called  foul  foot,  is  an 
infectious  disease  generally  occurring  between  the  toes.  The  first 
symptom  is  lameness  and  there  is  a  foul  odor  due  to  the  discharge 
of  pus.  Once  foot  rot  is  present  in  the  herd  it  is  difficult  to  get  rid 
of  it,  because  the  germs  live  in  the  mud  around  the  barn.  The 
first  treatment  should  be  to  make  sure  that  the  affected  animal 


160  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

has  a  dry  place  to  stand  in.  This  means  a  dry  cattle  yard.  The 
diseased  hoof  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  using  a  brush  and 
soap  suds.  Then  it  should  be  swabbed  with  a  20  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  creolin.  The  cleaning  may  be  repeated.  If  the  treat- 
ment does  not  prove  effective,  veterinary  assistance  should  be 
obtained. 

254.  Prevention. — A  very  simple  way  to  treat  foot  rot  and  pre- 
vent its  spread  is  to  have  all  the  animals  walk  through  air-slaked 
lime.  Put  a  shallow  box  of  lime  just  inside  the  stable  door.  Build 
it  as  wide  as  the  stable  door  and  five  or  six  feet  long  and  four  inches 
deep.  Put  into  it  about  three  inches  of  loose  air-slaked  lime. 
Stir  the  lime  up  each. day  before  the  cows  come  into  the  stable. 
This  will  help  with  foot  troubles  coming  from  muddy  pastures. 

255.  Teat  troubles. — Frequently  the  teats  become  sore.  In 
cold  weather  this  may  be  due  to  chapping.  To  treat  this,  first  wash 
with  warm  water  and  castile  soap,  then  rub  on  carbolated  vaseline. 
Sometimes  the  ends  of  the  teats  become  sore  due  to  an  infection. 
This  soreness  is  very  hard  to  get  rid  of.  Our  suggestion  is  to  take 
a  5  per  cent  solution  of  creolin  in  a  basin  and  dip  the  ends  of  the 
teats  in  it  regularly  after  milking. 

256.  Lice. — Cattle  are  frequently  infested  with  lice,  particu- 
larly in  the  winter  season.  Calves  and  young  stock  are  most  often 
affected.  Lice  may  be  suspected  where  the  animal  is  frequently 
rubbing  its  neck  and  shoulders  against  posts,  trees,  etc.  The  hair 
may  come  out  in  long-standing  cases.  Kerosene  emulsion  is  an 
excellent  remedy.  To  make  this  emulsion,  first  dissolve  one  ounce 
of  ordinary  soap  in  one  pint  of  boiling  soft  water.  Then  add  this 
to  one  quart  of  kerosene.  Place  the  mixture  in  a  bottle  or  Mason 
jar  large  enough  so  that  the  mixture  can  be  well  mixed  by  shaking. 
Cork  up  the  bottle  and  shake  until  a  foamy  emulsion  is  formed. 
Finally,  add  nine  quarts  of  water  and  apply  with  a  spray  gun  or 
brush.  The  hair  of  the  animal  must  be  thoroughly  wetted.  In 
winter  time,  if  the  quarters  are  cold,  one  should  hesitate  about 
following  this  procedure.  An  alternative  is  to  brush  crude  oil 
thoroughly  into  the  coat.  Whatever  treatment  is  used  it  must  be 
repeated  at  least  once  after  fourteen  to  sixteen  days  to  kill  lice 


COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE  161 

which  were  in  the  egg  stage  during  the  first  treatment  and  thus 
unaffected. 

257.  Warbles. — Everyone  is  familiar  with  the  lumps  on  the 
cow's  back  caused  by  the  warble  fly,  but  few  appreciate  that  these 
lumps  are  just  one  phase  of  the  effect  of  this  fly.  The  warble  or 
heel  fly  lays  its  eggs  on  the  heel.  The  eggs  develop  into  grubs  which 
burrow  into  the  skin  and  travel  all  through  the  body.  After  about 
eight  months  they  work  up  under  the  hide  on  the  back  and  develop 
further,  producing  irritation  and  pus  formation,  until  they  finally 
emerge  and  drop  off  to  change  to  mature  flies  and  start  the  egg-lay- 
ing process  again.  The  grubs  harm  the  animal  all  the  time  they 
are  in  the  body  and  hurt  the  value  of  the  hide  for  leather.  The 
treatment  consists  of  squeezing  them  out  of  the  hide  and  killing 
them  so  they  will  not  develop  into  the  egg-laying  flies.  If  this 
is  done  thoroughly  for  the  entire  herd,  the  pests  can  be  got  rid  of. 

258.  Wire  in  feed. — So  many  cases  of  death  in  cattle  occur 
from  the  swallowing  of  wires  and  other  sharp  objects  which  later 
pierce  the  heart,  that  it  seems  worth  while  to  emphasize  the  need 
of  preventive  measures.  The  wires  of  label  tags  on  the  feed  bags, 
wire  bristles  out  of  the  cleaning  brush,  nails,  screws,  tacks  and 
many  other  sharp  objects  have  caused  death  through  heart  punc- 
ture. Of  course  the  thing  to  be  done  is  to  be  constantly  on  guard 
against  such  objects  getting  into  the  hay  or  feed  that  the  animal 
eats. 

259.  Scours. — Both  common  and  white  scours  have  been  dis- 
cussed (63,  64)  in  connection  with  the  rearing  of  calves. 


CHAPTER   XIX 
THE   DAIRY  BARN   AND   OTHER   BUILDINGS 

More  than  anything  else  the  dairy  barn  should  be  a  place 
where  the  cow  will  be  comfortable  and  be  able  to  do  her  best. 
That  production  is  greatest  in  the  early  summer  on  pasture  is 
partly  due  to  the  feed,  but  the  ideal  surroundings  are  also  a 
factor.  There  is  an  abundance  of  fresh  air  and  sunlight  and  the 
temperature  is  moderate.  The  animal  is  free  to  move  and  the 
surroundings  are  clean  and  in  every  way  comfortable.  We  should 
reproduce  these  conditions  in  the  barn  as  far  as  possible.  Thus  it 
should  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated,  warm  and  clean.  Space  should 
be  provided  so  that  the  cows  need  not  be  stanchioned  all  the  time. 

260.  Convenience. — The  dairy  buildings  must  be  constructed 
with  an  eye  to  the  convenience  of  the  dairyman  so  that  he  can  do 
his  work  as  easily  and  quickly  as  possible.  This  calls  for  the  proper 
location  of  each  building  with  respect  to  the  other  and  the  proper 
arrangement  within  the  dairy  barn.  How  these  things  may  be 
realized  is  best  indicated  by  describing  a  specific  plan  for  a  dairy 
barn  and  related  buildings.   Such  a  plan  is  shown. 

261.  A  suggested  plan.— The  plan  on  page  163  does  not  go 
much  into  detail  but  serves  to  illustrate  a  type  of  layout  which 
provides  for  the  cow's  comfort  at  all  times  and  saves  many  steps 
for  the  dairyman.  The  plan  is  actually  being  worked  out  on  an 
eastern  farm.  It  provides  for  a  bank  barn,  with  the  bank  on  the 
north  side,  but  the  bank  does  not  extend  more  than  one-half  the 
length,  so  that  there  will  still  be  plenty  of  light  in  the  basement 
stable.  A  basement  stable  with  light  along  one  side  only  does  not 
allow  sufficient  window  space,  nor  proper  ventilation,  unless  a 
special  system  is  installed.  Space  for  20  cows  in  stanchions  is 
provided  and  there  are  several  box  stalls.  There  is  also  provision 
for  three  horses. 

The  barn  is  100  feet  long  and  34  feet  wide.  This  gives  a  working 
space  inside  98x32.    It  is  better  in  planning  a  new  barn  to  build 

162 


DAIRY  BARN  AND  OTHER  BUILDINGS  163 

36  feet  wide.  We  give  the  plan  of  the  smaller  barn  to  show  how 
the  space  could  be  used  in  remodeling  an  old  barn.  We  do  not 
think  it  worth  while  to  show  many  elaborate  plans.  Each  man 
must  work  them  out  for  himself.    Start  with  the  ideas  we  suggest 


BOX        STALLS 


Floor  Plan  for  Handy  Dairy  Barn 


and  then  plan  very,  very  carefully  the  modifications  you  want  to 
make  suited  to  your  own  conditions.  The  dimensions  we  give 
should  be  modified  if  necessary  to  suit  your  own  farm. 

262.  The  covered  barnyard. — We  are  very  firm  advocates 
of  the  covered  barnyard.  The  plan  suggested  is  one  which  one  of 
the  authors  is  working  out  on  a  farm  of  which  he  is  part  owner. 
He  is  buying  an  old  barn  and  moving  it  to  the  farm  to  make  this 
covered  yard  and  a  run  for  young  stock  and  a  bull  pen. 


164  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

X 

263.  Arrangement  of  barns  and  yard. — The  buildings  other 
than  the  barn  proper  are  all  arranged  both  with  the  idea  of  con- 
venience and  also  of  protecting  the  barnyard  from  winds.  The 
milk  house,  ice  house  and  garage  form  the  west  side  of  the  yard. 
On  the  east  is  another  barn  with  an  open  basement.  The  basement 
is  designed  to  furnish  a  shelter  and  feedirg  place  for  young  stock 
and  dry  stock,  since  it  is  convenient  to  the  silo  and  feed  room. 
The  bull  pen  will  go  in  this  barn.  Up  over  this  basement  or  covered 
barnyard  is  to  be  stored  the  hay  for  the  young  stock.  Along  the 
north  side  of  the  covered  barnyard  is  shown  the  feed  alley  for  the 
young  stock.  It  is  intended  that  the  manure  should  go  through 
this  alley  into  a  manure  pit  on  the  east.  Along  this  alley  are  to  be 
mangers  in  which  the  young  stock  are  to  receive  their  grain.  It  is 
intended  that  they  shall  be  tied  up  only  a  short  time  while  they 
are  eating  their  grain  and  silage,  with  the  idea  that  they  will 
have  free  access  to  hay  in  racks  somewhere  else  in  the  covered 
barnyard. 

Two  silos  are  shown.  The  smaller  one  will  be  used  as  a  summer 
silo. 

264.  The  plan  of  management. — The  open  barnyard  is  very 
well  protected  on  the  north,  west  and  east  sides.  On  pleasant  days 
the  dairy  cows  can  be  turned  out  into  the  sun.  If  it  is  a  little  too 
cold  for  the  milking  cows  to  go  out  into  the  open  barnyard,  the 
3Toung  stock  running  in  the  covered  barnyard  can  be  turned  out 
into  the  open  barnyard  and  the  milking  cows  put  into  the  covered 
barnyard  for  their  exercise.  This  will  enable  the  dairyman  to 
insure  reasonable  exercise  for  his  cows  every  day  and  he  can  take 
care  of  his  young  stock  in  the  open  barnyard  with  a  minimum  of 
labor.  This  covered  barnyard  connected  with  the  sheltered  yard 
and  stable  will  insure  the  maximum  of  comfort  with  a  minimum 
of  labor. 

265.  Care  of  the  manure. — It  is  planned  to  build  a  manure 
shed  with  pit  at  the  east  end  of  the  feed  alley  shown  in  the  covered 
barnyard.  Then  the  manure  can  go  easily  from  both  the  stable 
and  the  covered  yard  to  this  manure  shed.  We  believe  a  manure 
shed  should  be  provided  because  it  is  seldom  convenient  to  get  out 


DAIRY  BARN  AND  OTHER  BUILDINGS  165 

the  manure  every  day  even  though  highly  desirable.  Hogs  can 
run  on  the  manure  in  the  manure  shed  and  thus  it  will  keep  better. 
It  is  desirable  also  for  hogs  to  follow  the  young  stock  and  dry 
cows  in  the  covered  yard  in  the  same  way  that  hogs  follow  beef 
cattle  to  clean  up  the  grain  wasted  in  the  droppings. 

266.  Ventilation  and  light.— The  plan  gives  no  details  of 
construction.  Proper  ventilation  must  be  provided.  In  very  cold 
weather  it  is  difficult  to  secure  the  proper  amount  of  ventilation 
with  windows  alone  without  overdoing  it.  Ventilation  which  is 
satisfactory  in  all  temperatures  requires  some  special  construction. 
A  large  flue  opening  from  the  ceiling  and  extending  to  the  roof 
takes  out  the  foul  air.  Fresh  air  comes  in  by  several  smaller 
openings.  This  system  will  work  only  where  the  barn  is  so  tightly 
constructed  that  the  air  cannot  get  in  or  out,  except  through  the 
flues  provided.    (272) 

To  provide  adequate  light  there  should  be  four  square  feet  of 
window  glass  per  cow.  The  bottom  of  the  window  should  be  about 
four  feet  from  the  floor  and  the  window  should  extend  to  the  ceiling. 

267.  Dampness. — To  guard  against  dampness,  the  barn  should 
be  located  where  there  is  good  drainage  and  the  floor  should  be  so 
constructed  as  to  be  impervious  to  moisture.  A  poorly  drained 
location  means  a  muddy  barnyard.  This  in  turn  means  dirty 
cows,  more  chance  of  foot  rot  and  rheumatic  troubles.  An  ideal 
dry  floor  can  be  constructed  by  putting  down  a  layer  of  concrete, 
then  a  layer  of  tar  paper  and  covering  it  with  concrete  two  inches 
thick.  Do  not  finish  the  concrete  smooth.  Leave  it  rough  so  that 
the  cows  will  have  a  better  foothold. 

In  the  plan  we  have  described,  the  barn  has  its  long  way  from 
east  to  west,  with  the  side  having  full  window  space  facing  south, 
to  take  full  advantage  of  the  sun.  Where  no  part  of  the  barn  is 
banked,  it  is  preferable  to  have  the  long  way  from  north  to  south 
to  allow  the  sun  to  get  at  both  sides  at  some  time  during  the  day. 

268.  Facing  the  COWS. — It  is  always  best  to  arrange  the  barn 
to  provide  for  a  double  row  of  cows.  The  question  frequently 
comes  up  whether  the  cows  should  face  in  or  out.  If  a  manure 
carrier  is  used,  it  is  better  to  have  the  cows  face  in,  as  it  saves  time 


166 


BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 


in  feeding  and  causes  no  loss  in  cleaning.  We  show  a  suggested 
plan  for  utilizing  the  space  with  a  double  row  of  cows  in  a  barn 
34  feet  wide.  In  a  36-foot  barn  a  wider  feed  alley  and  a  wider 
walk  behind  the  cows  will  be  available. 

269.    Build  for  essentials. — In  building  a  barn  one  should  put 
his  money  into  essentials  only.    Sometimes  a  farmer  puts  unnec- 


Interior  of  Modern  Dairy  Barn.    Good  Type  Manger. 


essary  money  into  a  barn  in  a  desire  to  have  a  good  looking  one, 
perhaps  a  better  one  than  his  neighbors.  The  money  should 
be  spent  for  the  things  that  make  for  labor-saving  and  for  per- 
manence rather  than  for  show.  A  barn  will  last  as  long  as  its  roof 
and  foundations.  Paint  adds  to  the  appearance  but  its  importance 
in  adding  to  the  life  of  the  barn  has  been  overemphasized.  After 
the  essentials  of  housing  have  been  provided,  any  extra  money  the 
farmer  may  have  should  be  invested  in  animals,  not  in  showy 
equipment.  A  good  cow  pays  a  dividend.  An  unnecessarily  ex- 
pensive barn  means  more  outgo  for  taxes  and  upkeep. 


DAIRY  BARN  AND  OTHER  BUILDINGS  167 

270.  Relate  the  barn  to  the  farm.— There  is  one  other  thing 
worth  while  to  bear  in  mind  in  planning  a  new  building.  It  should 
be  in  keeping  with  the  farm.  One  should  not  build  an  expensive 
barn  on  a  cheap  farm,  nor  a  larger  barn  than  the  amount  and 
quality  of  the  land  justifies.  Money  so  spent  will  by  no  means  be 
realized  when  the  farm  is  sold.  Even  if  it  remains  in  the  family, 
the  money  invested  in  buildings  out  of  proportion  to  the  value  of 
the  farm  represents  an  over-capitalization  which  will  give  no 
return. 

271.  Remodeling  old  buildings.— The  plan  previously  de- 
scribed represents  what  could  be  done  if  an  entire  set  of  dairy 


Cross  Section  of  Stable  Showing  Plan  for  Cement  Work 


buildings  were  to  be  built.  Of  course,  the  building  problem  that 
most  face  is  one  of  remodeling  or  enlarging  the  dairy  barn,  or 
adding  some  unit  such  as  a  silo  or  milk  house.  In  rearranging  or 
adding  to  the  farm  buildings,  a  careful  plan  should  be  worked  out 
looking  towards  convenience  and  labor  saving.  In  the  past  farm 
buildings  have  been  put  up  at  different  times,  usually  without 
any  definite  plan.  The  farmer  cannot  tear  down  his  buildings  and 
start  over  but  he  can  go  over  his  layout  to  see  if  there  are  not  some 
changes  which  can  be  made  sufficiently  cheap  to  be  justified  in 
terms  of  labor  saved.  Further,  he  can  work  out  a  careful  plan  with 
respect  to  any  building  or  remodeling  he  may  do  in  the  future,  so 
that  any  further  construction  may  correct,  in  so  far  as  possible,  the 
mistakes  of  previous  haphazard  building. 

272.  Aids  to  building. — The  strongest  suggestion  we  can 
make  is  to  build  on  paper  before  doing  anything  else.  The  manu- 
facturers of  barn  equipment  are  very  willing  to  help  any  farmer 


168  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

with  his  building  problems.  Consult  them  and  get  their  adver- 
tising booklets.  The  illustrations  will  help  and  give  many  useful 
ideas.  These  companies  maintain  competent  engineers  who  will 
furnish  plans  for  new  buildings  or  for  the  rearrangement  of  old 
ones.  The  cost  of  this  service  is  very  small  compared  with  the 
help  that  can  be  obtained.  The  best  known  companies  are  the 
James  Manufacturing  Company,  Fort  Atkinson,  Wisconsin,  or 
Elmira,  New  York;  the  Louden  Machinery  Company,  Fairfield, 
Iowa,  or  Albany,  New  York;  or  Hunt,  Helm,  Ferris  &  Company, 
Harvard,  Illinois,  or  Albany,  New  York. 

Most  of  the  agricultural  colleges  of  the  various  states  have 
agricultural  engineering  departments  in  which  the  problems  of 
farm  buildings  are  treated.  We  have  tried  all  through  our  discus- 
sions to  interest  our  readers  in  utilizing  these  public  agencies, 
namely,  their  farm  bureau  agents  and  their  colleges  of  agriculture. 
Right  here  is  an  opportunity  to  get  very  definite  help.  One  or  two 
little  suggestions  from  an  engineer  may  be  worth  a  great  deal  to  a 
farmer  planning  to  build.  Again,  be  sure  to  build  on  paper  first 
by  drawing  and  studying  plans. 


CHAPTER  XX 
HOW  TO   PRODUCE   CLEAN   MILK 

MILKING   MACHINES 

Clean  milk  can  be  produced  if  just  two  things  are  borne  in  mind 
in  the  operations  connected  with  it.  These  two  things  are  cleanli- 
ness and  coldness.  Cleanliness  means  a  clean  cow,  clean  utensils 
and  a  clean  dairyman.  The  practical  question  is  as  to  just  what 
things  must  be  done  to  get  this  necessary  cleanliness.  Entirely 
satisfactory  milk  can  be  produced  by  paying  attention  to  a  few 
essentials  that  need  not  entail  much  extra  expense  or  labor. 

273.  First,  a  clean  cow. — The  first  essential  is  a  clean  cow. 
This  means  a  healthy  cow.  Milk  from  tubercular  animals  or  those 
with  udder  troubles  is  dangerous.  Then  the  cow  must  be  clean  on 
the  outside  to  keep  dirt  and  manure  from  getting  into  the  milk. 
Many  think  of  this  as  meaning  lots  of  washing  and  grooming  but 
these  processes  can  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  if  care  is  taken  to 
keep  the  cow  from  becoming  covered  with  manure  and  dirt  in  the 
first  place.  This  means  good  bedding  and  keeping  the  stable  clean. 
Then,  by  brushing  the  cow  daily  to  remove  loose  dirt  and  hairs, 
giving  especial  attention  to  the  region  of  the  udder,  a  satisfac- 
torily clean  cow  will  result.  It  will  also  help  to  sponge  off  the 
udder  and  teats  with  clean  water.  A  small-topped  milk  pail  is  the 
simplest  way  to  keep  the  dirt  out. 

274.  Clean  utensils. — Pails,  strainers  and  other  utensils 
should  be  first  cleaned  with  warm  soap  and  water,  using  a  brush. 
Be  sure  to  get  into  the  cracks  along  the  seams  and  elsewhere. 
The  utensils  should  next  be  rinsed  and  then  scalded  with  boiling 
water.  Heating  in  steam  is  better  if  it  is  available.  The  object  of 
this  thorough  cleaning  is  to  kill  the  bacteria,  which  will  multiply 
rapidly  as  soon  as  warm  milk  is  put  in  the  utensils.  The  scalding 
is  the  most  important  part  of  the  cleaning  process.  Hanging  the 
utensils  in  the  sun  to  dry  will  also  help  a  lot.   It  is  better  to  let  the 

169  i 


170  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

utensils  dry  by  themselves  than  to  wipe  them  out.   Finally,  do  not 
forget  to  wash  the  brush  used  in  scrubbing  the  pails. 

275.  A  clean  farmer. — The  dairyman  himself  must  be  clean 
— he  must  have  clean  clothes  and  clean  hands.  The  overalls  worn 
by  the  milker  do  not  need  to  be  white  but  they  should  be  different 
from  those  bearing  the  accumulated  dirt  of  the  farm  and  they 
should  be  washed  frequently.  The  next  thing  is  clean,  dry  hands. 
There  should  be  soap  and  water  and  a  towel  at  a  convenient  place. 
Milk  should  not  be  handled  by  anyone  suffering  from  a  contagious 
disease. 

276.  Cool  the  milk  at  once. — Keeping  the  milk  clean  as  we 
have  outlined  above  keeps  most  of  the  bacteria  out.  But  the 
few  that  do  get  in  can  multiply  rapidly  and  the  next  essential  is 
to  cool  the  milk  at  once  and  keep  it  cool  to  keep  down  the  bacteria 
as  much  as  possible,  for  the  product  is  graded  with  respect  to 
cleanliness  by  counting  the  bacteria  in  it.  Effective  cooling  means 
bringing  the  milk  to  50°  F.  or  lower  within  an  hour  after  it  is  drawn. 
There  is  no  question  but  that  cooling  the  milk  to  near  its  freezing 
point  is  better  but  it  is  expensive.  The  best  way  to  cool  the  milk 
down  quickly  is  to  run  it  over  a  cooler  in  which  cold  water  also 
circulates.  Many  such  coolers  are  on  the  market.  Ice  water  is 
preferable  to  use  for  this  cooling  but  many  farmers  pump  well 
water  through  the  cooler  with  satisfactory  results.  Sometimes  the 
water  as  it  comes  from  the  cooler  is  run  into  the  watering  trough. 

277.  The  milk  tank. — Next  to  the  use  of  a  cooler  through 
which  water  circulates,  the  best  method  of  cooling  is  to  set  the 
cans  in  a  tank  of  ice  water  and  stir  the  milk  frequently.  This 
method  requires  the  least  labor  and  equipment  and  is  perhaps  the 
most  practical  for  the  average  dairyman.  Once  the  milk  is  cooled 
it  must  be  kept  so  until  it  is  consumed,  for  cold  does  not  kill  the 
bacteria  and  they  will  become  active  if  the  milk  gets  warm  again. 
Thus  milk  which  has  been  run  through  a  cooler  should  be  kept  in 
a  tank  of  cold  water  thereafter. 

There  are  other  things  sometimes  emphasized  in  producing 
clean  milk — avoiding  dust  in  the  air  at  milking  time,  having  the 
barn  floors  and  ceilings  tight,  etc.   Dust  does  add  dirt  to  the  milk 


HOW  TO  PRODUCE  CLEAN  MILK      171 

but  this  is  of  very  small  importance  compared  to  the  dirt  that 
gets  in  from  the  dirty  cow  or  from  the  milker  who  is  careless  as  to 
his  personal  habits. 

278.  Flavors  and  odors.— Garlic  is  particularly  apt  to  give 
milk  a  bad  flavor  if  eaten  in  any  quantity.  Large  quantities  of 
cabbage  or  turnips  may  do  it.  Sometimes  it  is  something  else 
which  the  animals  have  eaten  in  the  pasture.  Milk  will  absorb 
odors  and  sometimes  it  gets  contaminated  while  standing  in  the 
barn.  Spraying  the  cows  immediately  before  milking  is  occasion- 
ally responsible.  Where  tainted  milk  occurs  the  farmer  must 
check  up  on  what  his  animals  are  eating  and  the  other  possibilities 
in  an  endeavor  to  locate  the  trouble.  To  guard  against  flavors  and 
odors  getting  into  the  milk  after  it  is  drawn,  the  milk  should  be 
removed  from  the  stable  at  once.  It  will  help  to  have  the  milk- 
room  separated  from  the  barn  by  a  passage  so  that  the  milkroom 
itself  will  always  be  clean  and  free  from  barn  odors. 

Feeds  that  might  flavor  the  milk  through  the  cow  should  be 
fed  only  and  at  once  after  milking.  The  flavor  will  then  not  get 
into  the  milk.  Cows  may  be  pastured  on  wild  onion  or  garlic 
infested  pastures  if  they  can  be  removed  from  such  a  pasture  four 
hours  before  milking. 

279.  Milking  machines.— With  the  increasing  difficulty  of 
getting  men  who  like  to  milk,  or  those  that  will  do  a  thorough 
job,  many  owners  of  good-sized  herds  are  wondering  whether  they 
should  install  a  milking  machine.  Many  factors  are  to  be  con- 
sidered, and  perhaps  we  can  help  a  man  make  a  decision  by 
pointing  out  some  of  the  things  that  have  been  found  out  about 
milking  machines  by  those  who  have  used  them. 

280.  Labor  saved  by  machine. — In  the  first  place,  does  a 
milking  machine  save  labor?  Mr.  H.  E.  Babcock  gave  a  direct 
answer  to  this  question  in  the  Jan.  27, 1923,  number  of  the  "Ameri- 
can Agriculturist."  In  summarizing  the  experience  on  one  of  his 
own  farms  he  wrote:  " Based  on  our  experience  to  date,  it  would 
seem  that  one  man  using  a  milking  machine  can  milk  and  care  for 
eighteen  cows  three  times  a  day  about  as  comfortably  as  he  can 
milk  nine  head  by  hand.*'    Others  have  given  similar  evidence. 


172  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

281.  Yield  is  maintained. — How  does  the  use  of  a  milking 
machine  affect  the  yield?  Experience  indicates  that  where  cows 
are  stripped  by  hand  after  machine  milking,  as  they  always  should 
be,  no  decrease  in  yield  is,  in  general,  evident.  Of  course,  some 
cows  do  not  take  kindly  to  the  machine  and  sometimes  cows 
shrink  prematurely  with  machine  milking.  These  instances  are 
not  common.  A  larger  question  deals  with  the  quality  of  the  milk 
— whether  as  clean  milk  can  be  produced  by  a  machine.  The 
answer  is,  "yes,  with  proper  care."  The  care  is  a  question  of 
properly  cleaning  and  sterilizing  the  machine  after  use.  Some 
very  satisfactory  methods  of  doing  this  have  been  worked  out  at 
the  New  York  State  Experiment  Station  at  Geneva,  New  York, 
from  which  the  exact  details  can  be  obtained.  We  know  of  cases 
where  certified  milk  has  been  produced  with  milking  machines, 
following  the  Geneva  methods  as  to  care. 

282.  Machines  save  money. — The  relative  cost  of  machine 
and  hand  milking  is  another  very  important  question.  Bulletin 
241  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  published  in  1923,  fur- 
nishes an  exact  and  up-to-date  answer  to  this  question.  By  a 
survey  of  some  sixty  farms  it  was  found  that  the  average  annual 
saving  in  expense  resulting  from  the  use  of  milking  machines  was 
$3.23  per  cow  in  herds  of  less  than  25  cows,  and  $5.70  in  herds  of 
over  25  cows.  These  differences  are  based  on  a  labor  rate  of  17.5 
cents  per  hour.  For  higher  rates,  the  advantage  would  be  more  in 
favor  of  the  machine. 

283.  Milking  machines  not  complicated. — It  is  generally 
accepted  that  the  milking  machine  has  been  perfected  so  that  it  is 
mechanically  satisfactory.  It  will  give  no  more  trouble  than  the 
more  common  pieces  of  machinery  used  on  the  dairy  farm.  Users 
are  also  in  fair  agreement  that  the  use  of  the  machine  does  not 
harm  the  cow  in  any  way,  provided  she  is  stripped  by  hand  to 
avoid  udder  troubles. 

284.  Keeping  individual  records. — One  drawback  to  the  use 
of  the  milking  machine  is  that  it  prevents  the  keeping  of  individual 
production  records.  Such  records  are  desirable  for  proper  feeding 
and  for  keeping  tab  on  whether  a  cow  is  a  profitable  producer.   The 


HOW  TO  PRODUCE  CLEAN  MILK       173 

only  way  to  get  around  this  difficulty  is  to  milk  each  cow  by  hand 
at  frequent  intervals,  say  once  a  month.  Of  course,  this  means 
extra  work  and  many  will  not  do  it.  Thus,  the  use  of  the  milking 
machine  is  objectionable  because  it  is  wholesale  milking.  Interest 
is  lost  in  the  individual  animal  because  the  owner  does  not  know 
what  she  is  doing. 

We  have  covered  the  common  questions  about  milking  machines. 
In  herds  of  twenty  cows  or  more,  it  would  seem  to  be  economical 
on  a  cost  basis.  We  believe  that  most  dairymen  will  find  the  milk- 
ing machine  satisfactory. 

285.  A  special  market. — The  dairymen  who  are  apparently 
making  the  most  money  are  those  who  are  marketing  their  milk 
direct  to  consumers  at  a  high  price.  Good,  clean,  cold  milk  is 
worth  fifteen  cents  or  more  per  quart  and  cannot  be  manufactured 
and  sold  in  bottles  for  less  and  yield  a  reasonable  profit.  There  are 
thousands  of  families  in  a  thousand  towns  that  want  clean  milk 
and  they  are  glad  to  pay  fifteen  cents  a  quart  for  it  delivered  to 
them  cold  in  bottles.  These  special  markets  can  be  developed  in 
almost  any  town  of  5000  people  or  more  by  dairymen  who  will  go 
after  their  customers  and  give  them  clean  milk.  (39) 

286.  Four  per  cent  milk  wanted. — The  milk  should  be 
guaranteed  at  least  four  per  cent  butter  fat  and  if  the  cows  do  not 
produce  this  kind  of  milk  it  should  be  standardized  to  this  per 
cent  by  separating  some  of  the  milk,  using  the  skimmed  milk  for 
feeding  calves  and  pigs  and  using  the  cream  to  bring  the  balance 
of  the  milk  to  four  per  cent.  It  is  probable  that  one  will  do  better 
in  developing  a  special  retail  market  to  choose  one  of  the  breeds 
that  will  produce  a  milk  testing  four  per  cent  or  better.  Then 
advertise  and  push  that  milk. 

287.  Ten  thousand  bacteria  the  limit. — In  developing  a 
special  market,  cleanliness  is  all-important.  The  clean  cow,  the 
clean  utensils,  the  clean  stable,  the  clean  wagon,  the  clean  man, 
and  most  of  all  it  is  the  attitude  of  the  man  doing  the  work  which 
keeps  the  bacteria  count  down  and  the  milk  cold.  Clean  milk 
must  be  delivered  with  a  bacteria  count  of  less  than  10,000  to 
command  the  price  that  will  make  a  profit. 


174  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

288.  Milk  must  be  uniform  in  quality. — The  milk  must  be 
the  same  in  quality  every  day.  This  is  not  hard  if  it  is  watched  at 
all  points.  Two  fundamental  things  are  true.  The  milk  is  clean 
in  the  udder  and  it  will  keep  clean  if  the  dirt  is  kept  out  and  the 
milk  is  kept  cold.  Keep  the  dirt  out,  as  it  cannot  be  strained 
out  if  once  it  gets  in,  and  cool  the  milk  at  once  and  keep  it  cold. 
If  this  is  done  with  clean  utensils  the  bacteria  count  will  be  low. 

289.  Advertise. — When  you  once  know  that  you  have  a  clean, 
uniform  product,  advertise  that  milk  at  a  good  price  and  you  will 
get  the  trade.  Invite  the  doctors,  teachers,  ministers,  and  mothers 
to  visit  your  farm  and  show  that  you  have  a  clean  place,  clean 
cows,  clean  helpand  clean  milk.  They  will  all  tell  their  neigh- 
bors. Not  all  of  us  can  have  a  special  market,  but  more  can 
have  one  than  have  one  now  by  just  knowing  the  meaning  of 
the  word  "  clean." 


CHAPTER  XXI 

BUYING   AND   SELLING   DAIRY  CATTLE 
FITTING   FOR  SALE  AND   SHOW 

Grade  Cattle 

We  should  figure  our  income  principally  on  the  receipts  from  the 
milk  produced  by  our  cows  every  day.  That  should  really  be  the 
foundation  of  our  business.  Therefore,  the  utmost  attention  must 
be  paid  to  feeding,  breeding,  care  and  handling  of  our  herds.  How- 
ever, the  buying  and  selling  of  cows  will  always  be  a  big  factor  in 
the  money  success  of  the  dairy  farmer. 

290.  Buying  grade  cows. — When  we  go  to  buy  cows  we  should 
look  for  size,  evidences  of  production,  and  a  good  amount  of  flesh. 
It  is  always  a  good  thing  to  buy  some  feed  along  with  a  springer. 
If  she  is  too  thin  she  will  not  carry  through  in  her  next  lactation 
to  the  best  advantage.  The  lesser  price  at  which  the  thin  cow  can 
be  bought  will  not  pay  for  the  feed  that  will  be  necessary  to  put 
her  back  into  condition  to  do  the  best  at  the  pail. 

291.  Disease. — Find  out  if  you  can  the  health  history  of  the 
herd  from  which  you  buy  cows.  Buy  only  tuberculin  tested  animals. 
Buy  only  from  herds  that  are  free  from  abortion.  It  is  a  big  job 
to  find  herds  that  are  as  clean  as  we  suggest,  but  it  will  pay  to  look 
further  and  pay  a  little  more  to  get  this  kind  of  stock.  Because  if 
we  are  to  carry  out  our  plans  and  breed  these  cows,  they  must  be 
clean  when  we  get  them.  If  we  buy  springers  and  are  going  to  save 
their  heifer  calves,  we  must  get  cows  that  are  bred  to  good  pure 
bred  bulls. 

Wisconsin  probably  sells  more  grade  cattle  than  any  other  state 
in  the  Union.  Professor  G.  C.  Humphrey  and  A.  O.  Collentine,  in 
a  circular  published  in  October,  1922,  summarize  what  good  buyers 
demand. 

292.  Dairy  cattle  market  demands. — "  Buyers  demand  cer- 
tain standard  conditions  that  will  enable  them  to  buy  most  con- 

175 


176  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

veniently  and  successfully  the  cattle  they  wish  to  obtain.  The 
most  important  of  these  are: 

"  Communities  or  counties  that  are  organized  and  producing  a 
large  number  of  cattle  of  a  given  dairy  breed.  This  condition 
enables  buyers  to  secure  their  'pick'  quickly,  with  little  travel, 
and  to  load  and  to  ship  from  a  single  shipping  point  at  the  least 
expense  in  time,  trouble  and  money. 

"  Community  breeders'  associations  for  the  improvement  of 
dairy  cattle  have  been  growing  in  Wisconsin  since  1906.  They 
have  been  the  means  of  securing  united  effort  by  a  large  number  of 
farmers  within  their  territories  on  the  breeding  of  high  grade  and 
pure  bred  dairy  cattle  and  in  serving  buyers  in  the  most  advan- 
tageous manner.  Some  of  these  associations  have  reached  a 
development  where  the  secretary  or  some  member  devotes  his 
entire  time  to  promoting  the  interests  of  the  association  and  wait- 
ing on  buyers. 

293.  Animals  that  are  well-bred  and  well-developed  are 
wanted. — "Two  questions  are  invariably  asked,  'Are  the  cattle 
sired  by  a  pure  bred  dairy  sire? '  and,  where  animals  are  of  breeding 
age,  'Are  they  bred  to  a  pure  bred  sire?'  Nearly  all  of  the  buyers 
who  come  to  Wisconsin  to  make  purchases  are  either  judges  of 
cattle  or  are  accompanied  by  a  county  agricultural  agent  or  a  dairy 
specialist  capable  of  exercising  good  judgment  in  making  selections. 
Experience  has  taught,  or  is  fast  teaching,  farmers  that  the  best 
cattle  are  the  most  profitable  for  them  to  select  for  foundation 
stock  and  milk-producing  herds.  A  common  remark  made  by 
buyers  is :  l  If  I  can  only  take  back  this  first  car  of  the  right  kind 
the  farmers  of  my  community  will  be  in  the  market  for  many  more 
carloads.  If  they  can  see  but  once  the  value  of  a  real  cow  they  will 
convince  their  neighbors  of  the  importance  of  securing  good  cows. ' 

294.  Cattle  of  known  production  are  in  demand  at  a 
premium. — "Cows  with  known  and  creditable  production,  or 
the  offspring  of  such  cows,  are  always  in  demand  at  highest  prices. 
Cow-testing  associations  enable  many  farmers  in  Wisconsin  to 
know  records  of  their  grade  cows  and  to  secure  from  $10  to  $25 
more  a  head  for  production  record  cows  than  buyers  are  willing 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


177 


to  pay  for  untested  cows.  For  several  years  Wisconsin  has  estab- 
lished a  'Register  of  Production'  for  ' a-pound-a-day '  cows, 
those  that  make  a  cow-testing  association  record  of  365  pounds  or 
more  of  butter  fat  in  a  year.  This  register  is  helpful  in  locating 
herds  and  cows  with  creditable  records  of  performance  made  in 
cow-testing  associations.  There  are  110  active  cow-testing  associa- 
tions in  Wisconsin  with  a  membership  of  3,200  members  having 


£M 

~F^ 

f  ■  ■  ■■ " 

I 

i    \ 

ta 

1, 

?.\' 

"i0 

■/  ->v" 

41  |^  .yx^.^ 

' 

.4 

1 

-if    V  ^ 

\M^0 

v        -'3i 

■<-*           *>>                                .           ''•';,v" 

Guernsey  Cows  at  Pasture 


54,661  cows  on  test.  Buyers  seeking  pure  bred  cattle  demand 
the  offspring  of  those  having  official  or  semi-official  records.  Such 
animals  command  a  much  quicker  sale  at  much  higher  prices  than 
purebreds  without  such  records.  Testing  for  official  or  semi- 
official records  of  pure  bred  cattle  is  becoming  a  more  common 
practice  in  Wisconsin  each  year. 

295.   Only  cattle  free  from  disease  are  wanted. — "It  is  not 
only  desirable  for  buyers  to  purchase  cattle  free  from  tuberculosis 


178  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

in  order  to  establish  clean  herds,  but  it  is  necessary  for  them  to 
secure  such  cattle,  owing  to  health  certificates  that  must  be  fur- 
nished before  cattle  can  be  shipped  to  most  of  the  states.  Wis- 
consin breeders  are  able  to  furnish  buyers  with  animals  free  from 
disease.  For  several  years  a  campaign  to  eradicate  disease  has 
been  carried  on,  and  Wisconsin  has  been  one  of  the  leaders  in 
tuberculin  testing.  There  are  more  federal-state  accredited  herds 
and  more  herds  under  supervision  in  Wisconsin  than  in  any  other 
state  in  the  United  States.  Large  areas  have  tested  all  animals, 
which  fact  lessens  possible  chances  of  infection  and  makes  it 
possible  to  buy  stock  generally  free  from  disease. 

296.  Buyers  from  out  of  the  state  naturally  prefer  to  go 
to  counties  having  a  county  agent. — ''Practically  all  of  the 
purchasers  coming  to  Wisconsin  to  buy  cattle  are  instructed  or 
accompanied  by  their  own  county  agent  or  dairy  specialist.  These 
men  recognize  the  Wisconsin  county  agricultural  agent  and  realize 
that  he  is  familiar  with  the  cattle  of  his  county ;  county  agents  take 
particular  pride  and  interest  in  having  buyers  secure  the  kind  of 
cattle  that  will  be  of  lasting  credit  to  the  county  in  which  they  are 
purchased  and  become  a  standing  advertisement  for  future  busi- 
ness. With  the  aid  of  the  agent  who  is  familiar  with  his  county, 
buyers  save  much  time  and  inconvenience  in  making  purchases. 
In  the  encouragement  and  assistance  that  county  agricultural 
agents  can  give  to  the  breeding  and  selling  of  dairy  cattle  they  are 
of  great  service  in  giving  the  state  its  deserved  reputation." 

Pure  Bred  Cattle 

At  the  time  when  this  book  is  being  written  (1923)  it  is  surely 
a  seed  time  for  the  pure  bred  cattle  business.  Pure  bred  cattle  are 
relatively  low  in  price.  The  harvest  is  coming  in  the  next  ten  years. 
The  world  is  not  always  going  to  be  upset.  As  the  world  settles 
down  and  foreign  markets  develop,  the  pure  bred  cattle  market 
will  improve. 

297.  Buying  pure  bred  cattle. — We  had  the  pleasure  of  buy- 
ing the  bred  Guernsey  heifer,  Aurora  of  Willow  Lane,  120016, 
for  a  friend  at  the  Wisconsin  State  Sale  of  Guernseys  in  March, 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


179 


AURORA  OF  WILLOW  LANE 

Born  February  28,  1921 
Owned  by  American  Milling  Co.,  Peoria,  111. 


Imp.  Flora's  Sequel  II  of  Le 
Briquet  No.  61807 

This  bull  has  an  exceptionally 
good  pedigree.  He  is  backed  by 
some  of  the  best  breeding.  His 
dam  is  by  the  only  bull  of  the 
breed  to  have  over  100  A.  R. 
daughters. 

His  sire's  dam  has  a  record  of 
783.10  lb.  B.  Fat,  which  was 
made  on  Island  of  Guernsey  and 
she  was  a  wonderful  show  cow. 

His  dam's  dam  is  by  Golden 
N'oble  II  (1836  P  S)  A.  R. 

Sire  of  29  A.  R.  daughters  in- 
cluding several  with  records  over 
700  lb.  B.  Fat. 


Valentine's  Honor  of  the 
Passee  (R  G  A  S  3784  P  S) 
6  A.  R.  daughters  including: 

Imp.  La  Belle  Valentine  A.  R. 

9333 
Milk  10722.90  lb.    Fat  552.28 

lb. 

Imp.  Valentine  II  of  Carteret 
Milk  9789. 10  lb.  Fat  550.79  lb. 


Imp.  Flora  of  Edgemoor 

No.  94252 

Milk  11035.70  lb.    Fat  530.30 
lb.  at  2  yrs. 

Dam  of  Imp.  Lady  Flora    II- 
of  the  Briquet 

Milk  6517.50  lb.  Fat  349.19  lb. 


Honoria's  Sequel  II 

(2816  P  S) 

King's  Cup,  1913. 

14  A.  R.  daughters  including: 
Imp. Sylph's  Milkmaid  of  Alba- 
mont 

Milk  13699.0  lb.   Fat  647.0  lb. 

Valentine  III  (7514  P  S) 

(Island  A.  R.  75) 

Milk  15477.751b.  Fat  783.101b. 
1st  prize,  Champion  and 
Challenge  Cups,  Whit,  1915. 
King's  Cup,  1915. 


Governor  of  the  Chene 

(1297  P  S) 

109  A. R. daughters  including: 
Imp.  Loulou's  Maid  A.  R.  5412 

Milk  12191.40  lb.     Fat  730.80 
lb. 
Imp.  Bon  Espoir  XII  A.  R.  2738 

Milk  15918.90  lb.    Fat  713.30 
lb. 


Flora  II  of  Le  Briquet 

(R  G  A  S  8724  P  S) 

Milk  11429.20  lb.   Fat  573.56  lb. 


Imp.  Marie  II  of  Quesnard 

No.  94241 

A.  R.  11131 
Milk  7512.30  lb     Fat  416.80  lb. 

Class  CC. 


Emperor  of  Quesnard 
(R  G  A  S  194  P  S) 

Sire  of  Imp.  Wild  Rose  of 
Grand  Rue 

Milk  8012.70  lb.  Fat  337.55  lb. 
Imp.  Marie  II  of  Quesnard 

Milk  7512.301b.  Fat  416.80  lb. 
Lady  Bird  of  La  Siegneurie 

Milk  7221.32  lb.   Fat  414.3  lb. 


Umpire  of  Quesnard 

(R  A  A  S  73  F  S) 

Sire  of  Imp.   Cypress  of  Sar- 
nia  A.   R.  5648 

Milk  8969.60  lb.  Fat  423.48  lb. 


Marie  of  Quesnard 

(R  A  A  S  1098  P  S) 

Dam  of  Imp.  Marie  of  Ques- 
nard A.  R.  11131 
Milk  7512.30  lb.   Fat  416.80  lb. 


Daisy  of  Quesnard 

R  A  AS  198GP  S 


Conqueror 

(R  A  A  S  72  P  S) 

6  A.  R.  daughters  including: 
Imp.  Lucy  of  theCourtils  A.R. 
1996 

Milk  9709.30  lb.  Fat  526.40  lb. 
Imp.  Duchesse  of  Chateau 
a  l'etocq  A.  R.  2408 

Milk  10249.50  lb.  Fat  524.40 
lb. 


Betsey  of  Quesnard 

(RAAS568FS) 


180  BETTER  DAIRY   FARMING 

1923.  Her  pedigree  is  given  on  page  179  to  illustrate  what  could  be 
purchased  at  this  time  in  the  way  of  breeding  in  a  very  nice, 
straight  heifer  for  $270.  Her  pedigree  is  well  balanced  along  the 
lines  illustrated  in  Chapter  XV.  One  outstanding  fact  in  her  case 
was  the  fact  that  she  was  bred  and  safe  in  calf  to  Cinderella's  King 
of  Mound  City,  40476,  whose  dam  has  a  yearly  record  of  909  pounds 
of  fat  at  six  years.  Therefore,  a  calf  from  this  heifer,  bull  or  heifer, 
will  have  a  sire  whose  dam  is  a  909-pound  cow.  This  illustrates 
some  of  the  things  to  look  for  in  buying  purebreds  along  with 
individuality. 

298.  Advertising. — When  owning  purebreds  it  is  well  to  have 
them  of  families  that  are  being  widely  advertised.  Then  it  pays  to 
show  all  we  can  at  fairs.  Enough  prize  money  can  be  won  with 
good  individuals  practically  to  pay  expenses,  and  inquiries  for 
stock  and  sales  made  later  will  justify  the  adventure  from  every 
standpoint.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  line  one's  animals  up  against  a 
neighbor's  for  an  impartial  judgment  and  find  out  where  one 
stands. 

299.  Fitting  for  show  and  for  sale. — When  selecting  dairy 
animals  for  show  they  should  have  good  size  for  their  age.  Straight 
top  lines,  good  middles  and  clean-cut  features  in  general  are  im- 
portant. The  females  should  have  good  udder  development.  The 
size,  shape  and  quality  of  udder  must  be  right.  Well-placed  teats 
are  important.  Cows  just  fresh  or  about  to  freshen  show  to  ad- 
vantage. 

R.  S.  Hulce,  Associate  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  at  the 
University  of  Wisconsin  and  a  judge  of  dairy  cattle  of  national 
reputation,  teaches  his  students  the  following  in  regard  to  fitting 
daily  cattle  for  show  and  for  sale: 

300.  The  fitting  ration. — "A  good  fitting  ration  might  con- 
sist of  equal  parts  by  weight  of  wheat  bran,  ground  oats,  hominy 
and  oil  meal.  Bran  and  oats  tend  to  lighten  the  ration  and  give 
variety;  the  hominy  puts  on  soft  flesh  and  the  oil  meal  helps  to 
condition  the  animal  and  put  on  a  sleek  coat.  Good  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay  and  corn  silage  are  important.  The  silage,  however, 
should  be  discontinued  some  time  before  the  animals  leave  home, 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  DAIRY  CATTLE  181 

so  that  they  will  be  receiving  the  same  feeds  that  are  to  be  fed 
while  at  the  fair. 

301.  Blanketing  and  clipping.— "  Each  animal  should  be 
stabled  and  blanketed  several  weeks  before  the  date  for  showing. 
The  animals  may  be  clipped  or  the  long  hair  may  be  worked  out 
by  brushing  the  body  with  coarse  sand  paper  tacked  to  a  block 
for  convenience  in  handling. 

"The  purposes  of  blanketing  are  to: 

(1)  Keep  the  animal  clean; 

(2)  Sweat  the  hide  and  better  its  handling  qualities; 

(3)  Help  shed  old  hair  and  make  the  rest  lay  to  the  body. 
"To  aid  in  putting  the  skin  and  hair  in  condition,  wash  a  few 

times  with  green  or  castile  soap  and  water.  Rub  the  hide  well  with 
a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  sweet  oil,  soap  liniment  and  alcohol.  A 
mixture  of  goose  grease  and  sweet  oil  is  also  very  good.  These  mix- 
tures not  only  improve  the  quality  of  skin,  but  add  a  gloss  to  the 
hair  and  give  the  body  a  very  clean  appearance.  The  mixtures 
mentioned  should  not  be  applied  to  white  hair  on  an  animal  later 
than  four  or  five  days  before  showing  because  of  coloration.  For 
grooming,  a  soft  brush  is  advisable.  Avoid  the  use  of  a  curry 
comb  except  for  the  purpose  of  removing  dirt  that  clings  tightly. 

302.  Horns  and  hoofs. — "The  horns  must  receive  attention. 
Scrape  down  the  rough  portions  by  the  use  of  a  file.  The  edge  of 
a  broken  piece  of  glass  is  sometimes  used  after  filing.  Be  careful 
not  to  make  the  skin  sore  at  the  base  of  the  horns.  When  the  horns 
have  been  worked  down  nicely,  rub  them  with  emery  cloth  to  put 
on  a  smooth  surface.  For  polishing,  fix  up  a  paste  using  sweet  oil, 
powdered  pumice  stone  or  tripoli  and  add  a  little  alcohol.  Apply 
this  paste  mixture  to  the  horn  and  rub  with  a  woolen  cloth.  If 
the  horns  have  been  put  in  good  condition  before  leaving  home, 
polishing  will  be  all  that  is  necessary  at  the  fair.  The  hoofs  may  be 
trimmed  by  use  of  pinchers  followed  by  a  rasp. 

"It  is  necessary  to  do  some  clipping  just  previous  to  showing. 
This  will  include  the  tail  above  the  switch  and  usually  the  ears 
and  portions  of  the  head  or  face  and  the  belly.  In  the  case  of 
females,  the  udder  should  be  clipped. 


182  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

303.  Training  for  the  ring.— "A  point  often  overlooked  is 
that  of  breaking  the  animal  to  lead  and  to  stand  properly.  If  the 
efforts  of  the  attendant  are  taken  up  in  dragging  and  pushing  an 
entry  about,  many  of  the  good  points  which  the  animal  might 
otherwise  show  are  concealed.  An  exhibitor  should  have  just  one 
thought  in  mind  while  showing  in  the  ring,  and  that  is  to  give  his 
entry  every  possible  chance  to  show  at  an  advantage.  By  this  is 
meant  that  when  his  animal  stands  its  feet  are  properly  placed, 
back  straight,  and  head  alert.  Any  movement  either  on  the  part 
of  the  attendant  or  the  animal  should  be  as  graceful  as  possible. 
A  good  animal  poorly  shown  does  not  always  get  its  just  dues. 
'Keep  one  eye  on  the  judge  and  the  other  on  the  animal/  is  the 
advice  of  experienced  showmen.  Until  the  ribbons  are  placed  a 
good  showman  takes  no  chances  of  his  animal  slumping  or  going 
to  sleep. 

"Two  or  more  breeders  who  feel  that  each  individually  does  not 
have  a  sufficient  number  of  animals  that  they  wish  to  enter  may 
well  go  together  and  put  on  a  combination  exhibit.  This  plan, 
carried  out  on  a  more  comprehensive  scale,  may  be  made  an 
excellent  advertisement  for  a  community  or  county  association." 

304.  Fitting  for  private  sale. — All  the  points  covered  so  far 
for  getting  animals  ready  for  the  fair  or  the  sales  ring  apply  at 
home  in  the  barn,  if  we  are  selling  regularly  our  surplus  stock  at 
private  sale.  Appearances  play  a  big  part  in  the  sale  value  of  any 
herd.  A  buyer  makes  up  his  mind  often  when  he  first  steps  into 
the  barn.  He  cannot  help  it.  Therefore,  keep  the  herd  arranged 
properly  in  the  barn  to  make  a  good  show.  Properly  stabled  they 
will  appear  uniform  in  size.  The  larger  ones  should  be  where  they 
can  be  seen  first.  If  the  udders  and  tails  and  coarse  hair  on  any 
part  of  the  body  are  kept  clipped  off,  much  will  be  added  to  the 
appearance  of  the  herd.  Besides,  it  will  be  more  pleasant  to  milk 
and  the  milk  will  be  cleaner.  Keep  the  switches  washed  and 
brushed  out.  This  dressing  up  of  the  herd  will  add  dollars  to  the 
selling  price.  We  do  not  sell  cows  just  "to  get  rid  of  them." 
Good  salesmanship  pays  on  the  farm  just  as  well  as  anywhere  else, 
and  is  accomplished  by  attention  to  details. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
HERD   IMPROVEMENT 

Keeping  records  of  individual  production  is  essential  to  profit- 
able dairying.  Not  only  are  such  records  essential  for  economical 
feeding  but  also  for  eliminating  from  the  herd  the  cows  that  are  not 
producing  enough  to  pay  for  their  feed.  It  has  been  repeatedly 
shown  that  in  herds  where  no  records  are  kept,  25  per  cent  to  50 
per  cent  of  the  animals  are  not  producing  enough  milk  to  pay  for 
their  feed  and  care.  They  are  an  actual  loss  to  the  farmer  every 
day  he  keeps  them,  yet  such  animals  may  stay  in  the  herd  for 
years.  It  is  a  surprising  thing  that  such  animals  are  found  even 
in  herds  which  as  a  whole  are  showing  a  good  profit.  This  is 
because  even  the  observing  and  experienced  dairyman  will  fre- 
quently fail  to  discriminate  between  a  profitable  and  unprofitable 
animal,  unless  he  has  some  record  of  their  production. 

305.  Production  records. — Many  farmers  do  not  keep  any 
production  records  because  of  the  trouble  and  expense.  It  is  a  lot 
more  expensive  to  keep  several  animals  at  a  loss.  The  dairyman 
who  will  keep  such  records  and  act  on  them  to  get  rid  of  his  poor 
producers  will  save  the  cost  many  times  over. 

The  records  that  are  needed  are  the  amount  of  milk  produced, 
its  fat  content  and  the  amount  of  feed  eaten.  From  these  records 
the  dairyman  can  tell  whether  a  given  cow  produced  milk  of 
sufficient  value  to  pay  for  her  feed  and  give  him  a  fair  return  for 
hfs  labor.  These  records  may  be  kept  by  the  dairyman  himself  or 
through  some  organization  like  a  cow-testing  association. 

It  will  be  easier  to  explain  how  these  records  are  kept  by  first 
showing  how  it  is  done  in  an  association. 

306.  Cow-testing  associations. — A  cow-testing  association  is 
made  up  of  a  group  of  farmers  who  employ  an  agent  to  make  tests 
and  keep  records  for  them.  This  man  visits  each  herd  at  least  once 
a  month,  makes  a  record  of  the  day's  milk  produced  by  each  cow 
and  determines  its  fat  content.   From  these  figures  the  amount  of 

183 


184  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

milk  produced  during  the  month  and  its  value  are  computed. 
The  tester  also  observes  what  the  farmer  is  feeding  and  weighs 
the  day's  feed,  both  grain  and  roughage.  A  good  dairyman  can 
give  the  tester  a  pretty  good  idea  of  how  the  amount  fed  on  that 
day  corresponds  to  what  the  cow  has  been  getting  during  the 
month.  The  amount  of  feed  for  the  month  is  thus  estimated  and 
its  value  computed.    All  of  these  figures  are  entered  in  a  book 


Lily  of  Willowmoor  22269 
Record  Ayrshire  cow  for  butter  fat.    Yearly  record  22,596  pounds  of  milk, 
955.56  pounds  of  butter  fat.    Owned  by  Gossard  Breeding  Estates,  Martins- 
ville, Ind. 

which  the  farmer  keeps  in  his  possession.  There  he  can  see  just 
what  each  cow  produced  during  the  month  and  compare  the  value 
of  the  product  with  the  cost  of  the  feed.  Thus  he  learns  what 
animals  are  not  paying  their  way  and  discovers  what  ones  are  the 
best  producers.  The  associations  may  be  organized  somewhat 
differently  in  different  states.  It  costs  about  $40  a  year  to  belong 
to  an  association  in  New  York  State. 


HERD  IMPROVEMENT  185 

Of  course,  a  farmer  cannot  join  a  cow-testing  association  unless 
there  is  one  in  his  neighborhood,  or  unless  he  can  persuade  sufficient 
of  his  neighbors  to  form  one.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  nothing 
that  the  expert  employed  by  an  association  does  that  a  dairyman 
cannot  do  for  himself  if  he  will.  In  fact,  he  can  have  more  com- 
plete and  more  accurate  methods  thereby,  and  there  are  other 
advantages  that  will  be  mentioned. 

307.  Weighing  the  milk.— To  get  a  record  of  the  amount  of 
milk,  all  that  is  required  is  a  spring  balance.  Many  milk  scales 
are  on  the  market  which  have  two  indicators,  one  of  which  can  be 
set  according  to  the  weight  of  the  pail,  making  it  possible  to  read 
the  weight  of  the  milk  directly.  Such  a  balance  will  cost  about  $5. 
Where  a  farmer  has  his  own  balance  he  can  weigh  his  milk  oftener 
than  once  a  month  as  is  done  in  an  association,  and  thus  have  a 
more  accurate  record  of  production.  He  should  do  it  at  least  once 
a  week  and  preferably  at  each  milking.  It  is  not  much  trouble  to 
hang  the  pail  on  the  balance  at  the  end  of  the  milking  and  record 
the  weight  of  milk  on  a  record  sheet  tacked  up  in  a  convenient 
place.  In  fact,  many  members  of  cow-testing  associations  weigh 
their  milk  frequently  during  the  month  and  turn  the  figures  over 
to  the  tester  when  he  comes  around,  thus  enabling  him  to  make 
more  accurate  calculations. 

308.  Testing  the  milk.— The  determination  of  fat  requires  a 
special  apparatus, — the  Babcock  tester.  The  cost  of  such  a  tester 
will  depend  on  its  size — that  is,  on  the  number  of  samples  of  milk 
that  can  be  tested  at  once.  For  a  herd  of  15  cows,  a  tester  holding 
eight  samples  is  a  satisfactory  size.  Such  a  tester  complete  with 
necessary  glassware  will  cost  around  $18.  A  run  with  such  a  tester 
can  be  made  in  an  hour.  Two  runs  would  take  care  of  the  15 
cows.  A  careful  test  once  a  month  will  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  fat 
content. 

309.  Keeping  the  records. — To  keep  a  record  of  the  feed 
there  should  be  a  sheet  on  which  there  can  be  recorded  just  what 
each  cow  is  getting  at  the  start — say,  the  first  of  the  month.  Then 
all  that  is  required  is  to  make  a  record  when  the  feed  is  changed, 
which  will  not  be  often.    Even  if  the  farmer  makes  no  change  he 


186  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

should  check  up  on  the  weights  of  the  feed  occasionally  to  make 
sure  that  he  is  actually  feeding  what  he  thinks  he  is. 

The  calculation  of  the  value  of  the  milk  and  the  cost  of  the  feed 
will  require  some  arithmetic.  In  fact,  the  dairyman  who  starts 
to  keep  his  own  records  should  have  more  detailed  directions  than 
we  have  space  to  give  him  here.  His  Farm  Bureau  Agent  will  be 
glad  to  help  him  get  started  or  put  him  in  touch  with  some  other 
farmer  who  has  had  experience. 

The  man  who  keeps  his  own  records  will  get  more  benefit  from 
them  than  where  they  are  kept  through  an  association.  He  will 
gain  a  better  knowledge  of  his  animals  and  after  taking  the  trouble 
to  get  the  records  he  will  be  sure  to  make  the  maximum  use  of 
them  in  improving  his  herd.  Unfortunately,  few  dairymen  will  go 
to  the  necessary  trouble.  Either  they  think  the  process  is  too 
complicated  to  try,  or  else  they  start  but  do  not  stick  at  it.  Thus, 
most  of  the  records  are  actually  kept  through  cow-testing  associa- 
tions, where  the  figures  are  all  set  down  in  a  book,  so  the  farmer  can 
see  at  a  glance  just  what  should  be  done  to  improve  the  herd.  Un- 
fortunately, some  farmers  fail  to  open  the  book. 

310.  Dairy  improvement  clubs. — There  was  recently  de- 
veloped in  Wisconsin  a  plan  for  general  herd  improvement  through 
organizations  called  "Neighborhood  Breed  Clubs";  somewhat 
similar  organizations  have  been  started  in  New  York  State  under 
the  name  of  Dairy  Improvement  Clubs.  These  organizations  are 
in  their  infancy  and  one  cannot  predict  how  successful  they  will  be 
or  how  they  may  be  changed.  In  these  clubs  as  organized  in  New 
York  State,  a  group  of  farmers  weigh  their  own  milk,  keep  their 
own  feed  records  and  have  their  milk  tested  for  fat  at  intervals 
of  three  or  four  months  at  a  local  creamery.  Once  in  two  months 
the  farmers  bring  their  records  to  a  group  meeting  where  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  State  College  goes  over  the  records  with  them  and 
makes  recommendations.  Under  this  plan  there  is  a  group  stimulus 
to  urge  the  farmer  to  keep  his  own  records.  The  method  of  keeping 
them  and  of  making  the  necessary  calculations  is  explained  to  him. 
He  receives  specific  recommendations  from  an  expert  as  to  how  to 
improve  his  herd  on  the  basis  of  his  records.    Further,  he  has  a 


HERD  IMPROVEMENT  187 

chance  to  hear  his  neighbors'  problems  discussed  and  thus  in- 
creases his  knowledge  as  to  the  general  business  of  dairying.  It 
will  be  interesting  to  watch  the  development  of  this  plan  which 
seems  to  have  much  in  its  favor. 

311.  Herd  improvement.— We  have  discussed  the  different 
methods  of  keeping  records  of  milk  produced  and  feed  consumed. 
Now,  we  want  to  point  out  just  what  value  these  records  have  and 
how  they  may  be  used  to  improve  the  herd  and  make  it  more 
profitable. 

The  first  thing  the  records  tell  is  what  cows  are  not  paying  for 
their  feed.  Obviously  these  cows  should  be  disposed  of  at  once. 
Next,  the  dairyman  will  know  just  how  much  each  of  the  rest  of 
his  cows  is  paying  for  his  labor,  interest  on  his  investments,  etc. 
When  these  things  are  taken  into  consideration,  the  value  of  the 
product  should  be  at  least  twice  the  value  of  the  feed  to  justify 
keeping  the  cow,  except  under  special  conditions  as  will  be  men- 
tioned later.  Thus,  the  records  show  what  cows  should  be  sold  and 
what  ones  should  be  kept. 

312.  Weeding  out  poor  producers.— The  question  arises  as 
to  what  period  of  time  the  records  should  cover  to  justify  a  de- 
cision to  get  rid  of  a  cow.  Many  factors  enter  in  here.  For  an  old 
cow  a  month's  record  may  be  sufficient  to  condemn  her;  on  the 
other  hand,  a  younger  animal  should  be  given  a  much  longer  test. 
A  cow  may  give  a  very  poor  yield  following  an  abortion,  yet  recover 
her  production  in  a  succeeding  lactation.  Certainly  an  animal  with 
a  good  previous  record  should  not  be  discarded  on  the  basis  of  her 
production  following  an  abortion.  Again,  a  cow  with  a  good  record 
may  lose  a  quarter  and  thus  become  a  poor  producer  and  yet 
warrant  retention  in  the  herd  because  of  the  possible  value  of  her 
calves.  The  idea  which  should  constantly  be  borne  in  mind  is  to 
get  rid  of  the  lower  producers  year  by  year  and  thus  continually 
raise  the  standard  of  the  herd,  for  the  higher  the  production  the 
greater  the  profit. 

313.  Breeding  value  of  cows.— Another  big  possibility  of 
herd  improvement  through  production  records  is  the  knowledge 
furnished  as  to  breeding  value.    Obviously,  the  heifers  from  the 


188 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


high  producing  cows  should  be  kept  in  the  herd.  The  breeding 
value  of  a  bull  shows  in  the  records  of  his  offspring.  One  cannot 
hope  to  make  much  improvement  along  these  lines  without 
records. 

Keeping  records  produces  a  return  in  herd  improvement  and 
value  in  many  other  ways.  When  cows  are  to  be  sold  the  good  ones 


Langwateb  Cleopatra  47043 
Yearly  record  15,364.7  pounds  of  milk,  792.51  pounds  of  butter  fat.    Sold 
in  1922  to  R.  L.  Benson,  Princeton,  X.  J.,  for  §19,500.00,  the  record  price  for 
the  Guernsey  breed. 

will  bring  more  if  the  owner  can  show  their  records.  A  calf  from 
a  cow  with  a  good  record  will  sell  for  much  more  than  from  a  cow 
with  no  record.  The  farmer  who  begins  keeping  records  will  find 
himself  taking  more  interest  in  his  herd,  giving  them  better  care 
and  increasing  their  value  thereby.  By  giving  each  cow  just  what 
feed  she  should  have  on  the  basis  of  her  production,  more  economi- 
cal feeding  will  result.  The  tests  for  fat  will  serve  as  a  check  on  the 
test  given  by  the  milk  purchaser. 


Part  V 
THE   FEEDS 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDS  AND  THEIR  MANURIAL 

VALUE 

The  feeding  of  animals  consists  of  supplying  them  with  certain 
chemical  substances  called  nutrients  which  their  bodies  require 
for  life  and  growth  and  for  the  manufacture  of  some  product  such 
as  milk.  Thus,  the  value  of  a  given  feed  rests  on  its  content  of 
these  nutrients.  The  chemical  substances  which  we  will  consider 
in  this  connection  are:  water,  proteins,  carbohydrates,  fats,  and 
mineral  elements. 

314.  Water.  Dry  matter.— Water  forms  about  50  per  cent 
of  the  live  weight  of  the  animal  body.  All  feeds  contain  some 
water  but  we  are  primarily  interested  in  the  part  which  is  not 
water,  which  is  called  dry  matter.  All  the  other  nutrients  are  parts 
of  the  dry  matter  and  thus  the  more  water  the  less  the  content  of 
these  other  nutrients  in  the  feed. 

315.  Proteins. — These  are  complex  compounds  containing 
nitrogen.  In  the  body  the  muscles,  the  organs,  the  skin  and  the 
hair  consist  almost  entirely  of  proteins.  Thus,  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand that  the  animal  requires  large  amounts  of  these  compounds 
in  its  feed  both  for  growth  and  for  replacing  worn  out  body  tissues. 
Similarly,  milk  contains  a  high  percentage  of  proteins  and  there- 
fore the  dairy  cow  needs  a  liberal  supply  for  milk  production. 

Everyone  is  familiar  with  the  term,  crude  protein,  used  in 
expressing  the  analysis  of  feeds.  Actually  there  are  several  different 
kinds  of  proteins  in  a  feed  and  feeds  differ  among  themselves  in 
this  respect.  A  given  amount  of  protein  in  one  feed  may  cause 
more  growth  or  produce  more  milk  than  the  same  amount  in 

189 


190  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

another  feed.  Thus,  we  speak  of  differences  in  quality  of  proteins, 
meaning  that  one  may  have  a  higher  feeding  value  than  another. 
Though  we  know  that  these  differences  occur,  we  do  not  yet  know 
how  to  classify  the  feeds  on  this  basis,  so  we  use  the  general  term, 
crude  protein,  or  simply  protein,  to  cover  all  the  proteins.  How- 
ever, we  do  know  that  certain  combinations  make  for  high  quality 
— for  example,  a  leafy  roughage  combined  with  cereal  grains. 

316.  Carbohydrates. — These  comprise  substances  which  are 
familiar  to  all,  namely,  sugars,  starches,  and  celluloses.  They  are 
of  only  limited  occurrence  in  the  animal  body,  but  occur  in  plants 
in  a  larger  proportion  than  do  any  of  the  other  chemical  com- 
pounds. Cellulose  forms  the  framework  of  plants  and  the  protec- 
tive coating  of  seeds,  while  starches  and  to  a  less  extent  sugars 
constitute  the  reserve  material  which  furnishes  energy  for  growth 
and  for  building  new  tissue. 

Over  one-third  of  the  dry  matter  of  milk  consists  of  the  carbo- 
hydrate, lactose.  Thus  in  milk  production  the  carbohydrates  of 
the  feed  may  serve  not  only  to  furnish  energy  for  the  process  but 
also  as  a  source  of  one  of  the  constituents  of  the  product. 

There  are  two  other  terms  used  in  connection  with  carbohydrates 
which  we  should  know,  namely,  crude  fiber  and  nitrogen  free 
extract  (X.F.E.).  These  terms  do  not  represent  distinct  chemical 
groups  but  rather  classes  into  which  all  carbohydrates  have  been 
divided,  using  feeding  value  as  a  basis.  Crude  fiber  is  what  is  left 
of  the  carbohydrates  of  a  feed  after  the  removal  of  the  more  sol- 
uble ones  by  the  use  of  certain  chemical  agents.  This  residue  is 
woody  in  nature  and  consists  principally  of  the  more  complex 
celluloses.  The  remaining  carbohydrates — the  sugars,  starches, 
and  some  of  the  celluloses — form  the  group  known  as  the  nitrogen 
free  extract. 

317.  Fats. — These  compounds  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  animal 
body  as  fatty  tissues.  In  plants  they  occur  especially  in  the  seed 
portion,  and  many  seeds,  such  as  the  seeds  of  cotton  and  flax,  are 
very  rich  in  them.  Like  the  carbohydrates,  the  fats  of  the  feed 
serve  as  sources  of  energy.  The  fat  which  is  stored  in  the  animal 
body  constitutes  the  energy  reserve  to  be  drawn  on  in  time  of  need. 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDS  191 

The  process  of  fattening  consists  of  building  up  this  reserve  by- 
continuous  feeding  of  energy-forming  material  in  excess  of  the 
animal's  requirements  for  it.  Since  fat  is  one  of  the  principal 
constituents  of  milk,  the  production  of  the  latter  requires  a  liberal 
amount  of  fat-forming  material  in  the  feed. 

318.  Protein  important. — Of  the  nutrients  mentioned,  pro- 
tein is  the  dominant  one,  because  no  other  nutrient  can  serve  as  a 
substitute  for  it,  either  for  growth  or  milk  production.  The  case  is 
different  as  regards  carbohydrates  and  fats  in  that,  although  the 
body  must  have  energy  to  carry  on  its  processes,  either  of  these 
two  nutrients  can  supply  it.  If  both  are  insufficient,  protein  itself 
can  be  used  as  energy.  Similarly,  carbohydrates  and  fats  can  be 
used  interchangeably  for  the  manufacture  of  these  nutrients  in 
milk  and  for  the  production  of  fatty  tissue,  or  even  protein  may  be 
employed  for  these  purposes  by  means  of  certain  chemical  changes 
in  the  body.  Thus  we  have  become  accustomed  to  state  that  the 
body  requires  a  certain  amount  of  protein  plus  sufficient  total 
nutrients  to  supply  the  needed  energy,  with  the  understanding 
that  fats,  carbohydrates  and  proteins  may  all  serve  to  furnish  this 
energy. 

319.  Mineral  elements.— This  group  of  nutrients,  collectively 
referred  to  as  ash,  comprise  two  to  four  per  cent  of  the  animal  body. 
There  are  many  different  mineral  elements  but  only  two,  aside 
from  common  salt,  require  consideration  in  putting  together 
rations. 

320.  Phosphorus  and  lime. — The  phosphorus  of  plants 
occurs  principally  in  the  seeds  where  it  is  located  in  the  germ  or 
branny  coating.  It  does  not  occur  in  any  considerable  amount  in 
hulls  or  stems.  The  leaves  have  more  than  the  stems  but  less  than 
the  seeds. 

Lime,  on  the  other  hand,  occurs  in  largest  amounts  in  the 
leaves,  to  a  lesser  extent  in  the  stems,  and  only  in  small  amounts 
in  the  seeds.  Thus,  the  chief  source  of  this  mineral  is  the  roughage, 
and  leafy  roughage  is  far  superior  to  the  other  kind.  The  farmer 
who  feeds  plenty  of  alfalfa  or  clover  and  a  grain  mixture  made  up 
of  high  grade  feeds  has  the  ration  which  is  best  from  the  standpoint 


192 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


of  lime  and  phosphorus.   Of  course  common  salt  must  be  provided 
for  all  animals  at  all  times  in  a  suitable  way.    (12,  13) 

There  is  one  other  mineral  that  may  be  lacking  in  the  diet 
in  certain  areas.  This  mineral,  iodine,  is  the  one  connected  with 
the  development  of  the  most  common  type  of  goitre.  Its  lack  is 
also  responsible  for  the  hairless  pig.    In  the  goitre  area,  cows  are 


Pearl's  Dot  57445 
Yearly  record  19,602.  5  pounds  of  milk,  965.8  pounds  of  butter  fat.    Owned 
by  D.  D.  Tenney,  Crystal  Bay,  Minn. 

sometimes  affected.  It  has  been  recommended  that  cows  in  these 
areas  receive  one-tenth  of  one  pound  of  potassium  or  sodium  iodide 
per  thousand  pounds  of  grain. 

321.  Measuring  the  value  of  feeds. — The  first  thing  we  want 
to  know  about  a  feed,  in  estimating  its  value,  is  its  chemical  anal- 
ysis,— that  is,  its  content  of  the  nutrients  we  have  just  mentioned, 
namely,  protein,  fat,  carbohydrates,  etc.    However,  chemical  anal- 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDS  193 

ysis  is  only  a  rough  measure  of  value.  It  shows  what  is  in  a 
given  feed,  but  feeds  having  the  same  analysis  are  not  necessarily 
of  equal  value  because  the  animal  body  makes  better  use  of  the 
nutrients  of  some  feeds  than  of  others.  The  big  difference  lies 
in  the  extent  to  which  a  feed  is  digested.  Finally,  in  comparing 
the  general  usefulness  of  feeds  we  should  consider  their  manurial 
value. 

322.  The  manurial  value  of  feeds. — It  has  been  stated  that 
the  part  of  the  feed  which  is  excreted  in  the  feces  represents  the 
indigestible  portion  from  which  the  animal  gets  no  value.  How- 
ever, this  portion  is  very  useful  as  fertilizer  as  we  all  know.  This 
is  such  an  important  item,  if  the  manure  is  properly  handled  so  that 
its  fertilizing  value  is  not  lost,  that  it  should  be  taken  account  of 
in  considering  the  value  of  feed. 

323.  Manure  the  cheapest  fertilizer. — Every  crop  which  is 
grown  takes  nutrients  out  of  the  soil  and  the  land  becomes  poorer 
and  less  productive  each  year  unless  these  nutrients  are  returned 
either  as  manure  or  commercial  fertilizer.  Of  course  the  use  of 
manure  Is  much  the  cheaper  method.  Here  the  dairyman  has  a 
great  advantage  over  the  hay  and  grain  farmer  because  he  has  a 
lot  of  manure  to  use,  coming  from  both  feeds  he  raises  and  feeds 
he  purchases.  In  order  to  make  the  most  of  this  advantage  he 
must  know  the  feeds  from  which  he  can  get  the  most  fertility. 

324.  Conserve  the  urine. — The  fertilizing  constituents  we  are 
interested  in  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Of  course, 
we  must  include  the  urine  as  well  as  the  solid  excreta  under  the 
term  manure.  The  urine  contains  on  the  average  40  per  cent  of  the 
nitrogen  and  60  per  cent  of  the  potash  of  the  total  fertilizing  con- 
stituents excreted.  This  shows  how  important  it  is  to  see  that  the 
urine  is  not  lost.  Of  the  total  fertilizing  constituents  in  a  given 
feed  the  amount  of  each  actually  excreted  in  the  manure  will 
depend  on  the  animal.  Unless  an  animal  is  growing  or  storing  fat 
or  making  some  product  such  as  milk,  nearly  all  of  these  consti- 
tuents eventually  appear  in  the  feces  and  urine.  A  horse  which  is 
not  gaining  in  weight,  developing  a  foetus,  or  nursing  a  colt  must 
thus  return  as  manure  nearly  all  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  of 


194  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

the  feed.  On  the  other  hand  the  dairy  cow  which  puts  part  of  the 
nutrients  of  her  feed  into  milk  can,  of  course,  return  the  balance 
only  as  fertilizing  constituents. 

325.  The  fertilizer  in  feeds.— The  following  table  from  Cor- 
nell Reading  Course  Lesson  141,  by  Fippin,  shows  the  percentage 
of  fertilizing  constituents  returned  in  the  manure  under  different 
conditions : 

Nitrogen  Percent 

Dairy  animals 35  to  75 

Meat  animals 65  to  90 

Work  animals 85  to  95 

Phosphorus 

Young  growing  animals 35  to  50 

Dairy  animals 50  to  80 

Work  animals 75  to  95 

Potassium 

Dairy  animals 65  to  85 

Meat  animals 75  to  90 

Work  animals 90  to  98 

326.  Legume  roughage  the  highest. — As  regards  home-grown 
feeds,  we  have  in  manurial  values  another  argument  for  using 
legume  roughage.  Clover  and  alfalfa  are  higher  in  protein  than 
are  other  hays  and  the  manure  from  them  is  higher  in  the  fertilizing 
constituent  nitrogen.  Of  course,  one  might  raise  the  objection  here 
that  legumes  must  also  take  more  nitrogen  out  of  the  soil  and  that 
this  fact  would  offset  the  greater  amount  of  nitrogen  returned  in 
the  manure.  Fortunately,  this  objection  is  not  a  real  one  because 
legumes  are  able  to  take  nitrogen  out  of  the  air  and  under  proper 
conditions  of  cultivation  leave  the  soil  actually  richer  in  nitrogen 
than  before  the  crop  was  grown.  No  other  crop  can  take  nitrogen 
out  of  the  air.  Thus  legumes  have  the  double  advantage  of  enrich- 
ing the  soil  during  growth  and  in  addition  furnishing  more  nitrogen 
in  the  manure  than  other  roughages. 

327.  Importance  of  manurial  values. — To  show  the  im- 
portance of  a  consideration  of  manurial  values  in  buying  concen- 
trates a  table  has  been  constructed  to  show  what  part  of  the  cost 
of  a  feed  may  be  returned  as  fertilizer.  The  table  has  been  made 
on  the  basis  that  55  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen,  and  65  per  cent  of  the 
phosphoric  acid  and  75  per  cent  of  the  potash  of  the  feed  of  the 


Manurial 

Net  cost 

alue  per  ton 

per  ton 

3.10 

33.40 

4.22 

34.38 

7.18 

27.87 

8.75 

41.05 

14.48 

43.57 

9.97 

49.08 

THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDS  195 

dairy  cow  are  voided  in  the  manure,  these  figures  being  averages 
of  those  given  in  Fippin's  table  previously  listed.  The  costs  per 
ton  are  current  prices  and  the  figures  used  for  getting  the  value  of 
the  fertilizing  constituents  were  as  follows:  nitrogen,  15c  per  pound; 
phosphoric  acid,  4c  per  pound;  potash,  5c  per  pound. 

Cost 
Feed  per  ton 

Corn  meal 36.50 

Ground  oats 38.60 

Wheat  bran 35.05 

Gluten  feed 49.80 

Cottonseed  meal  43% 58.05 

Linseed  oil  meal 59 .  05 

Of  course,  the  figures  shown  in  the  above  table  will  vary  accord- 
ing to  feed  prices  and  the  values  placed  on  fertilizing  constituents. 
More  important,  however,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  man- 
urial values  represent  the  maximum  return  and  assume  that  all  of 
the  manure  reaches  the  soil  without  loss.  No  farmer  obtains  these 
values  in  full  and  many  get  only  a  small  percentage  of  them.  How- 
ever, the  table  is  of  value  for  two  reasons :  First,  it  shows  that  it 
pays  to  conserve  the  manure;  and  secondly,  it  demonstrates  that 
the  difference  between  the  cost  of  high  and  low  protein  feeds  be- 
comes less  when  the  value  of  the  manure  is  considered. 

328.  Care  of  manure. — The  first  thing  of  importance  here  is 
to  see  that  the  urine  is  not  lost  since  it  contains  such  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  nitrogen  and  potash.  To  prevent  this  loss  there 
should  be  plenty  of  bedding  to  absorb  it,  the  gutters  should  be 
tight,  and  in  cleaning  the  stable  any  urine  in  the  gutter  should  be 
soaked  up  by  the  bedding  and  other  manure.  Fermentation  causes 
a  large  loss  of  nitrogen  in  manure.  The  strong  smell  common  in 
horse  stables  is  due  to  ammonia,  the  form  in  which  nitrogen 
largely  escapes  through  fermentation.  The  fertilizing  constituents 
may  also  be  washed  out  of  the  manure  by  rains  if  it  is  stored  out 
doors.  The  best  way  to  avoid  both  these  losses  is  to  draw  out  the 
manure  and  spread  it  on  the  fields  daily.  Where  this  is  not  possible 
it  should  be  stored  under  cover  in  compact  piles,  preferably  under 
shelter. 


196  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

If  horse  and  cow  manure  are  mixed  the  cold  cow  manure  will 
keep  the  horse  manure  from  heating  and  result  in  a  large  saving 
of  nitrogen  otherwise  lost  through  fermentation.  It  is  a  fine  thing 
if  the  manure  can  be  stored  in  such  a  place  that  it  can  be  tramped 
down  into  a  compact  mass  by  hogs  or  other  animals.  If  the  manure 
must  be  stored  outside  it  should  be  in  high  compact  piles  and  by 
no  means  under  the  eaves  where  rain  running  off  the  roof  will  wash 
out  its  constituents. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE   DRY  ROUGHAGES 

329.  Legumes  vs.  non-legumes.— The  legumes  are  the  leafy 
roughages,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa  and  peas.  They  are  much  higher 
in  protein  and  lime  than  are  the  non-legumes  as  is  shown  by  the 
following  table : 

Crop  Protein  Lime 

Red  clover  hay  (legume) 12 . 8%  1 .  60% 

Alfalfa  hay  (legume) 14.9  1 .95 

Timothy  hay  (non-legume) 6.2  0.25 

Corn  fodder  (non-legume) 7.8  0.66 

Considering  that  neither  class  of  roughages  has  a  marked 
advantage  as  regards  other  nutrients,  the  above  figures  show 
clearly  the  greatly  superior  feeding  value  of  the  legumes.  The 
latter  have  another  point  of  superiority.  By  the  aid  of  certain 
bacteria  which  grow  in  nodules  on  their  roots,  legumes  obtain 
nitrogen  from  the  air  to  form  protein.  Therefore,  instead  of 
depleting  the  soil  of  its  nitrogen  as  do  other  crops,  under  the  right 
conditions  of  culture  they  actually  leave  the  soil  richer  by  adding 
to  it  nitrogen  from  the  air.  In  this  way  the  legumes  furnish  more 
protein  for  feed  with  less  depletion  of  the  soil  than  do  non-legumes. 
However,  the  same  thing  does  not  hold  true  as  regards  lime. 
Legumes,  due  to  their  high  lime  content,  take  lots  of  tLAs  element 
from  the  soil  and  they  will  not  grow  unless  the  soil  contains  plenty 
of  it  either  naturally  or  through  its  addition  as  fertilizer.  In  fact, 
this  is  the  big  reason  why  it  is  difficult  to  grow  legumes  in  many 
places — the  soil  does  not  contain  enough  lime;  it  is  too  "acid" 
or  "sour, "  as  we  commonly  say.   Liming  overcomes  this. 

330.  Legumes  the  best  roughage.— From  the  standpoint  of 
feeding  value  and  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  everything  is 
in  favor  of  the  dairyman's  raising  legumes  for  his  dry  roughage. 
The  only  disadvantage  is  that  they  may  be  more  difficult  to  grow 
because  they  require  special  soil  conditions. 

197 


Dig.  crude 

Total  dig. 

protein,  lbs. 

nutrients,  lbs. 

463 

2250 

199 

1336 

70 

1134 

150 

2251 

198  BETTER  DAIRY  FARMING 

Alfalfa  Hay 

331.  Comparative  yield. — The  crop  for  roughage  which 
produces  the  greatest  yield  and  the  greatest  amount  of  digestible 
protein  per  acre  is  alfalfa.  In  the  production  of  total  digestible 
nutrients  it  is  equalled  only  by  corn.  These  facts  are  shown  by  the 
following  table,  given  by  Henry  and  Morrison. 

Yield  per 
acre,  lbs. 

Alfalfa  hav 4372 

Clover  hav 2624 

Timothy  hay 2340 

Corn  (ears  and  stover) 3574 

These  figures  are  averages  of  country-wide  returns  and  do  not 
represent  what  may  be  expected  in  every  locality.  However,  they 
leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  widespread  superiority  of  alfalfa,  and 
explain  why  its  acreage  is  so  rapidly  increasing.  A  good  stand, 
once  secured,  will  last  for  at  least  five  years.  Every  dairy  farmer 
should  consider  first  the  possibility  of  growing  alfalfa  for  his 
roughage. 

332.  How  to  get  a  stand  of  alfalfa. — Three  things  are  of 
prime  importance  for  growing  alfalfa  successfully:  (1)  a  well- 
drained,  fertile  soil;  (2)  lime;  and  (3)  inoculation. 

The  soil  selected  for  growing  alfalfa  must  be  well  drained.  The 
crop  will  not  live  on  wet  land  and  is  particularly  sensitive  to 
standing  water  during  the  winter  months.  On  certain  hardpan 
soils  where  the  water  table  comes  close  to  the  surface  in  winter, 
alfalfa  culture  is  very  uncertain  due  to  winterkilling. 

333.  Good  soil  necessary. — Alfalfa  will  not  do  well  on  a  poor 
soil.  It  is  not  a  crop  suitable  for  building  up  the  latter  as  is  clover. 
Unless  the  soil  will  produce  a  good  yield  of  other  crops  such  as 
corn  or  wheat  it  is  not  suitable  for  alfalfa  until  manured  and 
fertilized. 

334.  Lime  indispensable. — Certain  crops  do  best  on  an  acid 
soil,  others  will  not  grow  at  all  on  such  a  soil,  while  still  others  are 
rather  indifferent  to  this  condition.  Alfalfa  and  red  clover  are 
crops  which  simply  will  not  grow  where  the  soil  is  acid.   Acid  soils 


THE  DRY  ROUGHAGES  199 

are  primarily  those  which  lack  lime.  This  element  is  supplied 
naturally  in  certain  soils  as  those  containing  limestone;  to  others 
it  must  be  supplied  for  growing  crops  which  require  it.  The  major- 
ity of  the  cultivated  soils  of  the  eastern  states  are  acid.  This  is 
the  principal  explanation  why  so  little  alfalfa  is  grown  in  this 
section.  With  conditions  otherwise  suitable  this  difficulty  can 
be  overcome  by  liming.  If  the  farmer  does  not  know  whether  his 
soil  is  acid  or  not  the  best  thing  for  him  to  do  is  to  take  it  up  with 
his  Farm  Bureau  Agent  and  ask  him  to  have  the  acidity  deter- 
mined. In  this  way  he  can  learn  just  how  much  lime  is  needed  per 
acre.  Probably  the  answer  will  be  in  terms  of  quicklime,  also 
called  burnt  lime.  This  is  the  most  concentrated  form.  Where 
ground  limestone  is  used,  twice  as  much  is  required  as  of  the  quick- 
lime to  get  the  same  effect.  Lime  can  be  spread  on  the  land  any 
time  when  there  is  no  crop  growing. 

335.  Inoculation. — Supplying  the  soil  with  the  bacteria  which 
enable  legumes  to  take  nitrogen  out  of  the  air  is  called  inoculation. 
We  have  mentioned  that  legumes  are  the  only  crops  which  can  do 
this,  and  how  the  soil  is  enriched  in  nitrogen  in  this  way.  However, 
this  cannot  occur  unless  the  right  bacteria  are  present  in  the  soil 
and  the  chances  are  that  they  are  not,  unless  the  legume  crop  to  be 
sown  has  been  grown  recently  on  the  land  in  question.  Thus,  the  soil 
must  be  inoculated.  One  way  to  do  this  is  to  send  to  your  College 
of  Agriculture,  telling  them  the  number  of  acres  to  be  grown  and 
asking  for  a  " culture  of  the  bacteria  for  alfalfa."  The  College 
will  either  supply  a  sufficient  amount  of  the  culture  for  the  acreage 
in  question  at  a  nominal  cost,  or  advise  where  it  can  be  obtained. 
Another  method  of  inoculation  is  to  take  soil  from  an  old  alfalfa 
field  and  apply  it  at  the  rate  of  200  to  300  pounds  per  acre  to  the 
new  field.  This  assumes  that  the  cultures  were  actually  present 
in  the  old  field.  If  there  is  any  doubt  here  the  method  should  not 
be  used.  One  can  tell  whether  the  bacteria  are  present  where 
alfalfa  is  growing  by  noting  whether  there  are  any  nodules  on  the 
roots.  Where  soil  from  an  old  field  is  used,  it  should  be  taken  at  a 
depth  of  two  or  three  inches.  It  is  best  applied  and  harrowed  in 
immediately.    Exposure  to  air,  wind,  and  sun  destroys  the  bacteria. 


200  BETTER  DAIRY  FARMING 

336.  Seeding. — The  soil  should  be  well  prepared  and  compact, 
as  the  crop  will  not  winter  well  in  a  loose  seed  bed.  Sowing  in 
midsummer  can  be  practiced  except  on  heavy  soils  or  where  dry 
summers  are  the  rule.  On  heavy  soils  the  plants  may  not  get 
sufficient  start  to  live  through  the  first  winter.  In  a  dry  season 
it  is  difficult  to  prepare  the  seed  bed  properly.  Earlier  sowing  is 
the  alternative.  Many  prefer  to  sow  in  June.  Weeds  bother  more 
at  this  time,  but  they  can  be  killed  if  the  soil  is  frequently  harrowed 
from  early  spring  until  sowing.  On  verjr  heavy  soils  still  earlier 
sowing,  say  May  1,  may  be  advantageous  if  the  soil  can  be  properly 
prepared.  Usually  it  is  best  to  sow  no  nurse  crop  with  alfalfa  since 
the  young  plants  are  tender  and  must  be  favored  at  the  start. 
Where  the  land  is  especially  well  adapted  to  alfalfa  a  nurse  crop 
may  be  used. 

337.  Use  only  good  seed. — Only  the  best  seed  should  be  used. 
Northwestern  grown  seed  of  the  Grimm  variety  is  the  kind  best 
adapted  to  New  York  State  and  areas  of  similar  climate.  Recom- 
mendations differ  widely  as  to  the  amount  of  seed  to  use.  We 
suggest  20  pounds  to  the  acre,  but  believe  that  the  farmer  should 
be  governed  by  the  practice  in  his  own  locality  and  by  the  advice 
of  his  Farm  Bureau  Agent,  since  many  local  factors  affect  the 
question  as  to  the  amount  of  seed  to  be  used. 

338.  Time  to  cut  alfalfa. — For  the  largest  total  yields  alfalfa 
must  be  cut  promptly  whenever  it  is  ready.  Some  judge  this  by 
the  extent  of  the  bloom,  cutting  it  when  it  is  one-fourth  in  bloom. 
However,  in  certain  sections  of  the  country  the  plant  fails  to  bloom 
at  all.  Thus  a  better  general  rule  is  to  cut  as  soon  as  the  new  buds 
at  the  base  of  the  plant  are  well  started.  By  harvesting  the  crop 
at  this  early  stage  the  hay  will  contain  more  protein  and  less  fiber 
and  be  more  digestible  than  if  cut  later.  Further,  early  and 
frequent  cutting  means  maximum  yield.  The  number  of  cuttings 
will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  growing  season.  Usually  a  cutting 
can  be  made  every  30  or  40  days  during  this  season. 

339.  Curing. — The  ideal  hay  for  feeding  must  be  bright  in 
color  and  have  a  nice,  sweet  aroma.  It  is  very  important  that  as 
little  as  possible  of  the  leafy  material  be  lost.  The  leaves  are  tender 


THE  DRY  ROUGHAGES  201 

and  break  off  easily.  Good  alfalfa  should  be  about  one-half  leaves. 
These  leaves  have  four-fifths  of  the  protein,  as  well  as  most  of  the 
lime  and  over  one-half  of  the  fat  and  of  the  more  digestible  car- 
bohydrates. Unless  care  is  taken  to  save  the  leaves,  the  advantage 
of  growing  alfalfa  is  largely  lost.  The  hay  should  be  free  from  dust 
and  mold.  On  new  seeding  or  where  land  is  overflowed  the  hay 
may  be  dirty  from  such  a  source,  but  usually  dirt  and  dust  result 
from  improper  curing. 

340.  Save  the  leaves. — It  is  a  very  common  practice  at  present 
to  cure  hay  in  the  windrow  instead  of  in  cocks.  The  curing  is 
speeded  up  by  frequent  tedding,  raking  into  windrows  and  loading 
without  cocking,  by  the  use  of  the  hay  loader.  This  method  is  a 
time-and-labor  saver  but  it  does  not  make  the  best  hay  because  of 
the  loss  of  color  and  leaves,  due  to  exposure  to  the  sun. 

We  prefer  to  cure  legumes  in  the  cock  because  we  believe  that 
the  smaller  loss  of  feeding  value  more  than  pays  for  the  extra 
labor.  Where  the  hay  is  cut  in  the  morning  after  the  dew  is  off  it 
should  be  raked  up  and  cocked  as  soon  as  well  wilted  and  while  hot. 
By  allowing  the  minimum  time  to  elapse  before  cocking,  the  hay 
is  not  unnecessarily  exposed  to  the  bleaching  action  of  the  sun 
which  hurts  its  color.  In  the  cock,  fermentation  continues  during 
the  drying  and  the  best  color  and  aroma  are  thus  developed.  Also 
the  movement  of  water  from  stems  to  leaves  continues  so  that 
more  uniform  drying  results.  Where  the  hay  lies  as  mowed  too 
long  the  leaves  dry  much  quicker  than  the  stems  and  more  of  them 
are  lost.  The  day  after  the  hay  is  cut,  or  perhaps  the  second  day, 
the  cocks  should  be  opened  out  into  large  flakes,  shaking  as  little 
as  possible.  Of  course,  the  hay  should  then  be  drawn  in  as  soon  as 
sufficiently  dry.  Where  the  hay  is  cut  in  the  afternoon  it  should 
be  cocked  up  the  next  morning  as  soon  as  the  dew  is  off  and  drawn 
in  the  next  day.  These  directions  assume  fair  weather.  Unfortu- 
nately rain  is  a  frequent  trouble-maker  in  haying  time.  Everybody 
understands  how  the  curing  process  must  be  modified  where  rain 
interferes. 

341.  The  use  of  hay  caps. — The  use  of  caps  to  protect  the 
cocks  from  rain  and  dew  has  long  been  advised,  since  water  leaches 


202 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


out  the  nutrients  and  destroys  the  bright  color.  It  is  now  known 
that  alfalfa  hay,  cured  in  cocks  under  caps,  has  much  more  of  the 
factor  aiding  mineral  assimilation  than  where  cured  in  the  win- 
drow. Here  we  have  a  further  argument  for  this  method  of  curing. 
Curing  in  cocks,  particularly  under  caps,  means  a  product  higher 
in  protein,  lime  and  vitamines  and  a  more  palatable  feed.    (38) 

342.  Alfalfa  as  a  feed. — In  previous  pages  we  have  shown  the 
great  value  of  alfalfa  hay  in  the  dairy  ration  due  to  its  high  pro- 
tein content  resulting  in  less  of  the  costly  high  protein  feeds  being 


Field  of  Good  Alfalfa 
The  best  roughage. 


needed,  its  lime  content,  its  palatability,  its  laxative  effect  and  its 
vitamines.  These  qualities,  coupled  with  its  superiority  over  all 
other  forage  crops  as  regards  yield,  give  it  undisputed  first  place 
as  hay  for  dairy  cows  where  it  can  be  grown  successfully.  The 
second  and  third  cuttings  are  more  valuable  than  the  first.  We 
believe  that  many  daymen  who  think  they  cannot  grow  it  on 
their  farms  could  do  so  if  they  would  bear  in  mind  the  things  we 
have  mentioned  about  its  culture.  Getting  a  stand  may  mean 
extra  trouble  and  expense  at  first  but  success  will  mean  so  much 
that  it  is  worth  a  trial. 


THE  DRY  ROUGHAGES  203 

343.  Alfalfa  for  summer  feeding. — Alfalfa  is  a  fine  crop  for 
soilage  because  of  its  high  yield  and  because  it  furnishes  several 
cuttings  throughout  the  summer.  As  a  pasture  grass  it  is  not  very- 
successful  because  the  stand  is  rather  easily  injured  by  grazing, 
particularly  when  the  ground  is  soft. 

Alfalfa  finds  some  use  as  a  silage  crop  but  a  poor  product  fre- 
quently results  when  it  is  ensiled  alone.  The  first  crop  may  be  put 
in  the  silo  to  save  it  in  poor  weather.  Because  of  its  palatability  as 
hay  there  seems  to  be  no  advantage  in  ensiling  it  unless  it  cannot 
be  cured  properly  for  hay. 

344.  Alfalfa  meal. — Grinding  the  hay  does  not  take  it  out  of 
the  roughage  class  and  the  dairyman  will  find  in  general  that 
he  can  raise  his  roughage  cheaper  than  he  can  buy  it.  It  is  more 
difficult  to  judge  the  quality  of  alfalfa  after  it  is  ground.  Frequent- 
ly the  meal  contains  more  stems  and  less  leaves  than  a  good  alfalfa 
hay  should.  Thus,  in  buying,  the  guarantee  on  the  tag  should  be 
noted.  A  good  meal,  having  the  proper  proportion  of  stems  to 
leaves,  should  not  contain  over  30  per  cent  crude  fiber. 

The  Clovers  and  Other  Legumes 

Red  clover  stands  verjr  close  to  alfalfa  from  the  standpoint  of 
feeding  value  but  is  ranked  below  it  as  a  roughage  crop  for  the 
dairy  farm  because  of  its  much  poorer  yield.  However,  as  regards 
extent  to  which  it  is  grown,  it  is  the  more  important  forage  crop. 

345.  Soils  for  red  clover. — Red  clover  differs  from  alfalfa  in 
not  requiring  as  fertile  a  soil  and  in  preferring  a  less  dry  soil,  thus 
drainage  is  not  so  important.  However,  clover  requires  lime  the 
same  as  does  alfalfa  and  will  not  live  on  an  acid  soil.  It  also  re- 
quires, for  satisfactory  growth,  the  presence  of  the  proper  bacteria 
which  enable  the  plant  to  take  nitrogen  from  the  air,  as  we  have 
described  for  alfalfa.  Where  the  soil  has  grown  clover  before, 
these  bacteria  are  probably  present;  otherwise,  it  must  be  in- 
oculated as  we  have  mentioned  in  the  case  of  alfalfa. 

346.  Seeding. — Red  clover  is  largely  sown  in  March  or  April, 
as  it  is  best  to  sow  it  when  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  are 
taking  place.    However,  it  may  be  scattered  on  the  land  in  most 


204  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

any  winter  month  with  fair  assurance  of  success.  Do  not  sow  it  in 
midsummer  because  the  young  plants  do  not  do  well  in  hot  weather. 
The  crop  is  usually  sown  on  winter  wheat  or  spring  grains.  If 
sown  alone,  10  to  12  pounds  per  acre  is  the  proper  rate. 

347.  Clover  with  timothy. — It  is  a  common  practice  to  sow 
red  clover  with  timothy.  By  so  doing  a  greater  yield  of  forage  is 
obtained  because  timothy  does  not  come  to  full  yield  the  first  year 
while  clover  does,  the  clover  dying  out  the  second  year  as  the 
timothy  comes  to  maximum  production.  In  the  meantime  the 
clover,  through  its  ability  to  take  nitrogen  from  the  air,  has  bene- 
fited the  soil  and  made  possible  a  better  crop  of  timothy.  Further, 
the  two  crops  go  well  together  because  the  clover  roots  penetrate 
much  deeper  and  thus  the  roots  from  the  two  plants  do  not  com- 
pete directly  for  the  same  nutrients. 

348.  Red  clover  in  rotations. — All  good  farmers  practice  crop 
rotation;  that  is,  on  a  given  field  they  alternate  cultivated  crops 
and  grain  crops  with  grass  and  clover.  Such  a  system  aids  in  keep- 
ing up  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Crops  with  different  root  systems 
are  grown  in  different  years,  the  nutrients  being  drawn  from  dif- 
ferent depths  of  the  soil  accordingly.  A  field  continually  sowed  to 
grain  crops  rapidly  loses  its  humus  or  supply  of  decaying  organic 
matter,  which  results  in  a  loss  of  fertility.  Grass  crops  maintain  or 
increase  this  humus.  Rotation  helps  to  control  weeds,  diseases 
and  insects.  Having  a  legume  in  the  rotation  aids  in  keeping  up 
the  nitrogen  content  of  the  soil  by  bringing  it  nitrogen  from  the 
air.  Red  clover  fits  into  a  crop  rotation  better  than  any  other 
legume.  It  can  be  sown  with  a  grain  crop  one  year,  harvested  at 
full  yield  the  next  season  and  then  plowed  up  for  sowing  grain 
again.  Growing  red  clover  once  in  four  years  will  maintain  the 
nitrogen  and  humus  content  of  the  soil. 

349.  Harvesting  red  clover. — Clover  usually  yields  two  cut- 
tings per  season,  the  second  being  lighter  but  of  better  quality. 
The  crop  should  be  harvested  when  in  full  bloom.  After  this  period 
the  stems  become  more  woody  and  some  of  the  leaves  are  lost. 
When  harvested  alone  it  is  difficult  to  cure.  Harvested  with 
timothy  there  is  the  disadvantage  that  it  matures  about  two  weeks 


THE  DRY  ROUGHAGES 


205 


before  the  timothy  is  ready  and  some  of  its  nutritive  value  is  lost. 
This  is  the  only  disadvantage  of  growing  the  two  together.  We 
have  discussed  in  detail  the  curing  of  legume  hay  for  roughage 
under  alfalfa.   The  same  applies  to  clover.    (339,  340,  341) 

350.  Red  clover  as  a  feed. — We  have  mentioned  that  clover 
ranks  with  alfalfa  as  a  dry  roughage  for  dairy  cattle  and  that  these 
two  legumes  are  in  a  class  by  themselves  for  the  purpose.  Every 
dairy  farmer  should  try  to  grow  a  liberal  amount  of  one  or  the 


Darling's  Jolly  Lassie  435948 
Champion  Jersey  Cow.     Yearly  record   16,425  pounds  of  milk,   1141.28 
pounds  of  butter  fat.    World's  Champion  Junior  four  year  old,  all  breeds. 
Owned  by  Pickard  Bros.,  Marion,  Ore. 

other.  Red  clover  is  a  valuable  crop  for  soilage  and  may  furnish 
three  or  four  cuttings  annually  under  favorable  conditions.  It  is 
also  a  good  pasture  grass  but  one  should  be  careful  in  turning  cattle 
out  on  clover  the  first  time  because  they  may  eat  too  much  and 
bloating  result. 

351.  Alsike  clover. — This  clover  is  finding  increasing  favor 
as  a  legume  crop  for  poorer  soils  because  it  will  grow  in  many 
places  where  both  alfalfa  and  red  clover  will  fail.  The  big  point 
in  its  favor  is  that  it  will  flourish  on  soils  too  acid  for  the  legumes 


206  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

previously  mentioned.  Alsike  will  withstand  more  cold  and  heat 
than  will  red  clover,  and  will  grow  in  regions  where  the  latter  will 
winterkill,  as  well  as  in  sections  too  hot  for  red  clover  to  thrive. 
Alsike  is  the  hardier  plant  and  will  continue  four  to  six  years  on  a 
good  soil.  However,  it  furnishes  only  one  cutting  a  season  and  thus 
is  at  a  disadvantage  as  regards  yield.  Where  red  clover  does  well, 
alsike  cannot  compete  with  it  but  the  dairyman  who  does  not 
succeed  with  either  red  clover  or  alfalfa,  due  to  the  nature  of  his 
soil,  has  a  much  greater  promise  of  success  in  alsike.  The  culture 
of  alsike  is  very  similar  to  that  of  red  clover.  A  mixture  of  three 
parts  red  clover,  three  parts  timothy  and  one  part  alsike  often 
gives  splendid  results. 

Other  clovers  which  are  grown  to  some  extent  for  hay  are  sweet 
clover,  mammoth  clover,  crimson  clover,  and  hubam  clover. 

352.  Peas  and  oats. — Field  peas  are  not  usually  sown  alone 
because  it  is  difficult  to  harvest  the  low  vines.  The  favorite  com- 
bination is  peas  and  oats.  Using  equal  parts  of  seed,  three  to 
four  bushels  should  be  sown  to  the  acre.  The  yield  of  the  mixture 
will  be  two  to  three  tons  of  dry  forage  per  acre.  Barley  and  spring 
wheat  may  also  be  sown  with  field  peas.  For  the  best  growth  of 
peas  the  soil  should  be  inoculated.  A  culture  of  bacteria  for  peas 
can  be  obtained  through  your  State  College  of  Agriculture. 

When  cut  early,  field  peas,  either  alone  or  in  combination  with  a 
cereal,  make  a  palatable  and  nutritious  hay  for  dairy  cows.  Peas 
and  oats  make  the  best  soilage  crop  for  the  northern  states.  The 
combination  also  makes  very  good  silage. 

353.  Soybeans. — This  legume  crop  is  especially  adapted  to 
a  hot  dry  climate,  and  can  be  grown  for  hajT  wherever  corn  will 
mature  for  silage.  The  hay  is  nearly  equal  in  feeding  value  to 
alfalfa  and  a  j-ield  of  one  to  three  tons  per  acre  may  be  expected. 
Soybeans  are  a  comparatively  new  crop,  but  are  proving  very  use- 
ful for  growing  in  sandy  soils  and  where  other  legumes  do  not 
flourish. 

354.  Cowpeas. — This  crop  is  a  very  important  legume  for 
roughage  in  the  cotton  belt  but  will  not  thrive  in  the  more  northern 
latitudes. 


THE  DRY  ROUGHAGES  207 

The  Non-Legumes 
The  feeding  value  of  non-legumes  lies  principally  in  their  car- 
bohydrate content.  They  are  much  lower  in  protein  and  in  lime, 
and  in  general  are  less  palatable  than  the  legumes.  In  actual 
practice  the  low  protein  content  is  their  most  serious  disadvantage. 
It  can  be  overcome  only  by  buying  more  high  protein  feeds  for  the 
grain  ration. 

355.  Timothy  low  in  protein. — Timothy  has  less  than  one- 
quarter  as  much  digestible  protein  as  has  alfalfa.  Where  it  is 
the  sole  roughage  the  grain  mixture  must  contain  one-half  again 
as  much  protein  as  where  all  legume  hay  is  used.  Where  the  latter 
is  available  to  mix  with  timothy  the  protein  content  of  the  grain 
mixture  can  be  changed  accordingly.  Of  course,  most  dairymen 
will  grow  some  timothy  for  their  horses,  but  for  dairy  cows  this 
roughage  should  be  looked  upon  as  a  supplement  to  an  insufficient 
supply  of  legume  roughage.  Since  timothy  hay  is  not  very  palat- 
able it  is  especially  important  that  the  dairyman  feeding  large 
amounts  of  it  should  have  plenty  of  silage.  Timothy  is  also  some- 
what constipating  and  this  fact  must  be  remembered  in  choosing 
the  rest  of  the  ration. 

For  dairy  cattle  timothy  should  be  cut  at  full  bloom  since  this 
is  the  time  that  it  contains  the  greatest  amount  of  total  digestible 
nutrients  and  makes  the  most  palatable  hay.  It  is  a  little  more 
difficult  to  cure  at  this  time,  but  since  even  at  its  best  it  is  much 
less  palatable  than  legume  hay,  it  must  be  so  harvested  as  to 
be  as  valuable  as  possible. 

356.  Hay  from  mixed  grasses. — We  use  this  term  to  denote 
a  hay  which  many  farmers  have,  through  cutting  the  same  field 
year  after  year,  a  hay  which  varies  according  to  the  season.  Such 
hay  consists  largely  of  timothy,  but  may  in  wet  years  contain 
considerable  clover.  In  some  years  it  may  consist  largely  of  weeds. 
Such  a  roughage  must  vary  greatly  in  feeding  value,  and  we  men- 
tion it  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  rest  of  the  ration  must 
be  adjusted  according  to  the  nature  of  the  cutting  in  a  given  season. 
The  thing  to  bear  in  mind  regarding  such  hay  is  that  the  more 
clover  in  it  the  better  it  is  in  palatability  and  protein  content. 


208  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

Whore  weeds  occur  in  large  amount,  the  reverse  is  true.   The  other 
feeds  must  be  chosen  accordingly. 

357.  Corn  fodder  and  stover  lack  protein.— Corn  fodder 
means  either  the  fresh  or  cured  corn  plant  grown  primarily  for 
forage,  with  any  ears  produced  on  it.  Corn  stover  is  cured  shock 
corn  from  which  the  ears  have  been  removed.  No  dairyman 
can  afford  to  be  without  a  silo,  and  preserving  the  entire  corn 
plant  as  silage  rather  than  as  fodder  means  less  loss  of  nutrients 
and  a  more  nutritious  and  palatable  product. 

When  corn  is  grown  thickly,  harvested  while  still  green,  cured 
in  well  made  shocks,  and  drawn  in  as  soon  as  dry,  a  very  nutri- 
tious roughage  results.  Corn  fodder  is  high  in  carbohydrates  and 
low  in  protein.  It  is  best  fed  along  with  a  legume  roughage  and  ne- 
cessitates the  use  of  a  high-protein  grain  mixture,  even  as  does 
timothy. 

Corn  stover  has  less  protein  and  less  feed  value  than  the  fodder 
and  is  much  less  palatable.  The  best  course  for  the  farmer  to 
follow  who  has  stover  as  a  by-product  on  his  farm  is  to  place  it 
before  his  dairy  cows  and  young  stock,  and  let  them  eat  what 
they  will  of  the  leaves  and  more  tender  stalks. 

358.  The  cereal  straws. — Straw  has  less  feeding  value  than 
corn  stover  and  can  have  little  place  in  the  ration  of  the  dairy 
animal.  A  limited  amount  of  oat  straw,  if  of  good  quality,  may 
be  used  to  supplement  better  roughage.  The  cows  should  be  al- 
lowed to  pick  out  the  more  tender  parts  of  the  straw  and  then  the 
remainder  can  be  used  for  bedding.  Barley  straw  stands  next  to 
oat  in  value.  Wheat  and  rye  straws  are  too  coarse  and  woody  to 
feed. 

359.  Computing  the  amount  of  hay  in  a  mow. — Frequently 
one  wants  to  know  how  much  hay  is  left  in  a  mow.  In  a  mow  of 
timothy  hay  of  average  depth,  there  will  be  a  ton  of  hay  for  every 
500  cubic  feet.  Of  course,  the  hay  is  heavier  toward  the  bottom 
of  the  mow.  Near  the  bottom  450  cubic  feet  will  make  a  ton. 
On  the  other  hand,  near  the  top  550  cubic  feet  would  be  required. 
Clover  and  alfalfa  weigh  somewhat  less  than  timothy.  About  1200 
cubic  feet  of  settled  wheat  straw  are  required  to  make  a  ton. 


CHAPTER   XXV 


THE  SUCCULENT   ROUGHAGES 


The  Silo  and  Silage  Crops 

Making  silage  is  a  method  of  food  preservation.  Decay  of  food 
is  caused  by  the  action  of  minute  organisms,  bacteria,  yeasts  and 
molds.  There  are  three  common  methods  of  preserving  food. 
The  organisms  are  not  active  where  moisture  is  not  present,  thus 
food  may  be  preserved  by  drying.  This  is  the  method  we  employ 
in  curing  hay.  Neither  are  the  organisms  active  at  low  tempera- 
tures, thus  fruits  and  vegetables  are  stored  in  cold  cellars.  We 
store  roots  for  winter  feeding 
in  a  similar  manner.  Finally 
the  absence  of  air  is  another 
preserving  factor.  Making  si- 
lage is  based  on  this  principle. 
At  the  start  there  is  consider- 
able action  by  the  micro-organ- 
isms due  to  a  certain  amount 
of  air  present,  but  the  action 
stops  at  a  definite  point  as  will 
be  described. 

360.  Keep  out  the  air.— 
When  a  green  forage  is  so 
packed  in  a  closed  space  as  to 
exclude  most  of  the  air,  fer- 
mentation sets  in  and  the 
sugars  present  are  largely 
changed  to  acids.  The  proc- 
ess is  similar  to  the  forma- 
tion of  vinegar.  When  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  acid  is  formed 
fermentation    stops    and    the 


4  5 

I     \ 

!    Ei 

The  Stave  Silo 
Notice  power  pulley  for  filling. 


209 


210 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


acid  serves  to  preserve  the  green  material  even  as  vinegar 
preserves  vegetables  in  pickling.  This,  in  brief,  is  the  process 
which  takes  place  in  the  silo.  Thus,  the  green  forage  is  pre- 
served in  nearly  its  original  condition  with  less  loss  of  nutrients 
than  when  cured  for  hay,  and  a  more  palatable  feed  results. 

361.  Silos. — A  good  silo  should  have  air-tight  walls,  otherwise 
the  silage  will  spoil.  A  cylindrical  silo  is  preferable  to  any  other 
shape  because  it  provides  the  greatest  storage  capacity  for  a  given 
amount  of  building  material  and  because  it  is  easier  to  pack  the 
silage  down  in  it  thoroughly  than  where  corners  must  be  filled. 
The  silo  should  be  deep  because  this  means  increased  compactness 
due  to  the  pressure  of  the  upper  layers,  and  the  more  compact  the 
silage  the  less  loss  of  dry  matter  through  fermentation.  This 
pressure  of  the  upper  layers  requires  strong  walls  for  the  silo, 
otherwise  it  will  collapse.  These  walls  should  be  smooth,  other- 
wise, as  the  silage  settles,  pockets  will  be  left  and  here  spoiling 

will  occur  due  to  contact  with 
air. 

362.  Types  of  silos.— There 
are  several  kinds  of  silos  in 
use.  The  stave  construction 
with  iron  hoops  is  the  most 
popular  because  of  its  low  cost 
and  ease  of  building.  The  stave 
silo  is  not  as  lasting  as  a  more 
permanent  construction  such 
as  concrete  or  brick,  but  if 
well  built  of  the  right  kind  of 
wood  and  not  allowed  to  go 
into  disrepair  it  will  last  from 
ten  to  twenty  years.  Since  it 
has  been  shown  that  on  many 
farms  such  a  silo  will  pay  for 
itself  in  one  year,  it  certainly 
The  Wood  Wrapped  Silo  must  be  a  very   excellent  in- 

A  good  type  of  modern  silo.  vestment    for    every    farmer. 


THE  SUCCULENT  ROUGHAGES 


211 


Manufacturing  concerns  have  specialized  in  stave  silo  construc- 
tion and  in  most  cases  the  farmer  can  purchase  such  a  silo  to 
better  advantage,  when  length  of  life  is  considered,  than  he  can 
build  himself. 

363.  The  wood- wrapped  silo.— Using  the  stave  type  of  con- 
struction as  a  basis  other  silos  have  been  designed  with  double  or 
triple  walls.  These  silos  are  more  durable,  furnish  more  protection 
against  freezing,  and,  of  course,  withstand  wind  and  weather  to 
better  advantage.    They  cost  more  but  are  probably  worth  it. 

364.  Masonry  silos.— The 
use  of  brick,  concrete  or  hol- 
low tile  is  increasing  for  silo 
construction.  These  materials 
make  a  much  more  permanent 
silo  but,  of  course,  are  con- 
siderably more  expensive  and 
many  farmers  cannot  afford 
to  make  such  a  large  invest- 
ment. Further,  it  may  not  be 
profitable  for  them  to  do  so. 
Concrete  is  cheaper  than  brick 
or  hollow  tile. 

In  trying  to  decide  what 
kind  of  a  silo  to  build,  it  will 
help  to  look  through  the  dairy 
papers  and  send  for  literature 
on  the  various  ones  advertised. 
It  would  also  be  a  good  thing 
to  talk  with  neighbors  who 
have  silos  and  with  the  Farm 
Bureau  Agent. 

365.  Size  of  silo.— The 
size  of  silo  to  be  built  will  de- 
pend on  the  size  of  the  herd, 
assuming,  of  course,  that  the 
farmer   can   grow  a  sufficient  Concrete  Block  Silo 


212  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

crop  to  fill  it.  Two  things  are  important  here.  In  the  first 
place,  the  silo  must  be  large  enough  to  hold  a  year's  supply.  In 
the  second  place,  the  diameter  of  the  silo  must  be  small  enough  so 
that  enough  will  be  fed  off  each  day  to  prevent  spoiling  at  the  sur- 
face. This  means  one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  in  winter  and 
somewhat  more  in  summer. 

366.  Capacity  of  silos. — The  following  table  can  be  used 
in  estimating  the  weight  of  silage  at  the  time  filling  is  completed, 
and  thus  will  show  what  size  of  silo  must  be  built  to  hold  a  given 
amount.  The  table  is  taken  in  a  condensed  form  from  Missouri 
Circular  89  by  Eckles.  The  figures  assume  that  the  silage  is  well 
tramped  down  and  that  after  settling  two  days  the  silo  is  refilled : 


Depth 

10 

12 

-Inside  diameter  of 
14 

silo  (feet) 

16 

18 

of 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

silage 

of 

of 

of 

of 

of 

(feet) 

silage 

silage 

silage 

silage 

silage 

20 

22.8 

32.8 

44.6 

58.3 

73.8 

25 

31.3 

45.2 

61.3 

80.0 

101.3 

28 

36.8 

53.0 

72.1 

94.1 

119.2 

30 

40.6 

58.5 

79.5 

103.8 

131.6 

32 

64.1 

87.2 

113.8 

144.5 

34 

69.8 

95.1 

124.2 

157.4 

36 

103.2 

134.7 

170.7 

367.  Calculating  the  requirement. — Knowing  the  size  of  the 
herd,  the  rate  fed  per  day  and  the  feeding  period,  the  tonnage  needed 
is  easily  computed.  A  herd  of  15  cows  consuming  35  pounds  per 
day  for  300  days  would  require : 

15x35x300     _  0 

=  78. 8- tons 

2000 

By  referring  to  the  above  table  we  see  that  a  silo  14  feet  in  diam- 
eter by  30  feet  deep  would  hold  79 . 5  tons.  The  figures  in  the  table 
must  not  be  relied  upon  too  closely  because  the  capacity  of  a  given 
silo  in  terms  of  tonnage  will  vary  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
corn  as  it  goes  in  and  the  method  of  filling. 

368.  Calculating  the  acreage. — In  determining  the  acreage 
needed  to  produce  the  tonnage  desired,  the  farmer  must  be  guided 
by  his  own  experience  as  to  what  his  land  will  produce.  A  good 
crop  of  corn  will  yield  10  to  15  tons  of  silage  to  the  acre. 


THE  SUCCULENT  ROUGHAGES       213 

Most  silos  are  constructed  14  feet  in  diameter.  This  is  small 
enough  to  allow  sufficiently  rapid  removal  of  the  silage  in  winter 
for  a  herd  of  15  animals.  Where  silage  is  fed  in  summer  there  is  an 
advantage  in  having  one  of  small  diameter,  so  that  it  may  be  fed 
off  sufficiently  rapid  to  prevent  spoilage  at  this  time  when  less  is 
fed  per  cow.  A  14-foot  silo  for  winter  feeding  and  a  12-foot  silo  for 
summer  is  rather  an  ideal  combination  for  a  herd  of  20  to  30  cows. 

369.  Crops  for  silage. — Corn,  sorghum,  peas  and  oats,  sun- 
flowers, alfalfa,  soybeans  and  rye  are  among  the  crops  grown  for 
silage.  Corn  is  the  ideal  crop  for  the  silo.  There  is  considerable 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  a  well  matured  corn  which  will 
furnish  the  largest  yield  of  dry  matter,  or  a  type  furnishing  great- 
er succulence  but  less  dry  matter  is  to  be  preferred. 

370.  The  variety  of  corn  to  grow.— In  New  York  State, 
Luce's  Favorite  is  the  most  popular  type  of  corn  at  present.  It  is  a 
type  which  will  mature  or  nearly  mature  at  a  latitude,  and  under 
the  climatic  conditions  of  central  and  western  New  York.  It  thus 
makes  a  silage  containing  a  considerable  proportion  of  ears  and 
represents  the  type  to  grow  where  maximum  yield  of  nutrients 
rather  than  succulence  is  desired. 

Cornell  1 1  is  another  variety  of  corn  for  silage  where  a  mature 
type  is  desired.  It  is  not  quite  as  good  a  yielder  as  Luce's  Favorite 
but  matures  somewhat  earlier  and  thus  may  be  more  suitable  to 
localities  with  a  short  growing  season. 

371.  Grow  to  glazing  stage. — We  believe  that  the  variety 
which  will  reach  the  glazing  stage  before  the  first  frost  will  give 
the  best  satisfaction.  Luce's  Favorite  and  Cornell  11,  in  New 
York,  and  Golden  Glow  and  Silver  King,  in  Wisconsin,  are  such 
varieties.  Many  states  are  making  much  improvement  in  their 
strains  of  corn.  Follow  the  recommendations  of  your  State  College. 

The  time  to  harvest  corn  for  silage  must  vary  with  the  locality. 
It  should  be  done  before  the  first  frost.  In  such  a  latitude  as 
central  New  York  this  means  around  September  10. 

372.  Filling  the  silo.— The  corn  should  be  cut  in  uniform 
lengths  not  over  one  inch  and  so  delivered  to  the  silo  as  to  dis- 
tribute evenly  the  pieces  of  stalk,  ear  and  leaf.  The  material  must 


214  BETTER   DAIRY  FARMING 

be  thoroughly  packed  in  the  silo  to  get  minimum  loss  during 
fermentation  and  to  secure  largest  tonnage  for  size  of  silo.  Once 
the  silo  is  filled,  it  should  not  be  entered  for  some  time  because  of 
danger  to  life  from  the  accumulation  of  carbon  dioxide  given  off 
during  fermentation.  The  danger  can  be  overcome  by  removing 
the  door  near  the  surface  of  the  settled  silage  and  allowing  it  to  air 
out  before  entering. 

373.  Adding  water. — If  the  corn  is  overripe  or  very  dry  when 
placed  in  the  silo  a  certain  amount  of  water  should  be  added  with 
it.  It  is  difficult  to  decide  how  much  water  to  add,  for  too  much 
means  silage  of  poor  quality  and  too  little  may  mean  moldy  silage. 
The  best  guide  here  is  to  add  enough  water  so  that  it  will  pack  well. 
The  only  really  satisfactory  way  to  get  the  silage  thoroughly  and 
evenly  wet  is  to  run  the  water  in  through  the  blower  of  the  silage 
cutter. 

374.  Silage  from  frosted  corn. — We  have  recommended  cut- 
ting corn  for  silage  before  the  first  frost.  This  is  because  frosted 
corn  is  more  difficult  to  handle  properly  to  preserve  its  nutrients. 
However,  in  an  effort  to  let  the  corn  come  to  the  proper  stage  of 
maturity  for  maximum  yield  the  farmer  in  the  more  northern 
sections  must  take  some  chance  on  having  his  corn  frosted,  and 
the  question  frequently  comes  up  as  to  how  it  should  be  handled. 
Corn  which  has  been  frosted  should  be  cut  at  once,  otherwise  there 
will  be  a  loss  in  the  field  due  to  leaves  dropping  off.  Further,  rain 
will  leach  nutrients  out  of  frosted  corn  as  it  does  out  of  corn  in  the 
shock.  When  frosted  corn  is  put  in  the  silo,  enough  water  must  be 
added  to  make  it  pack  well,  putting  it  in  through  the  blower  of 
the  silage  cutter.  If  the  farmer  will  cut  his  corn  as  soon  as  frosted 
and  can  put  it  in  the  silo  with  the  proper  addition  of  water,  he 
can  be  certain  of  good  silage  from  frosted  corn,  and  he  can  afford 
to  take  a  chance  on  frost,  if  necessary,  to  secure  maximum  yield 
through  proper  stage  of  maturity. 

375.  Silage  remaining  in  a  silo. — A  farmer  often  wants  to 
know  how  much  silage  he  has  left.  This  can  be  found  out  from  the 
following  table,  taken  from  Missouri  Circular  89,  which  shows 
the  estimated  weight  of  settled  silage: 


THE  SUCCULENT  ROUGHAGES       215 


-Inside  diameter  of  silo  (feet)- 


Depthof  10  12  14  16  18 

silage  Tons  of  Tons  of  Tons  of  Tons  of  Tons  of 

(feet)  silage  silage  silage  silage  silage 

10 13.7  19.7  26.9  35.1  44.4 

12 16.7  24.1  32.8  42.9  54.2 

14 19.9  28.6  39.0  50.9  64.3 

16 23.0  33.2  45.2  59.0  74.5 

18 26.2  37.7  51.4  67.1  84.8 

20 29.4  42.4  57.7  75.3  95.2 

22 32.6  47.0  64.0  83.5  105.6 

24 35.9  51.7  70.4  91.9  116.1 

26 39.2  56.4  76.8  100.3  126.8 

28. 42.5  61.2  83.4  108.9  137.6 

30 45.9  66.0  90.0  117.5  148.5 

Suppose  after  the  silage  had  settled,  a  man  had  24  feet  of  silage  in 
a  silo  14  feet  in  diameter.  By  the  table,  he  had  70 . 4  tons.  Suppose 
that  on  a  given  date  his  silage  remaining  indicated  that  he  had 
fed  off  16  feet.  This  would  mean  that  he  had  used  45 . 2  tons  ac- 
cording to  the  table.  This  amount  subtracted  from  the  original 
weight  would  show  25 . 2  tons  left  in  the  silo. 

376.  Sunflower  silage. — The  great  popularity  and  proven 
merit  of  silage  rests  largely  on  results  secured  from  corn,  and  today 
probably  90  per  cent  of  the  silage  used  is  from  the  corn  plant. 
However,  the  remarkable  results  with  corn  have  caused  other 
crops  to  be  tried,  particularly  for  conditions  where  the  corn  crop 
cannot  be  depended  upon.  Many  farmers  and  Experiment 
Stations  recently  have  been  trying  sunflowers  for  silage.  Satis- 
factory results  have  been  obtained  as  regards  yield  and  quality  of 
silage  to  give  this  crop  a  real  place,  at  least  in  sections  too  cool  and 
too  high  in  altitude  for  corn  to  thrive. 

377.  Sorghum  silage. — Silage  made  from  the  sorghums  cut 
at  the  proper  stage  of  maturity  ranks  close  to  corn  in  value.  The 
sorghums  are  primarily  grown  in  the  Southwest,  although  certain 
early  varieties  may  be  grown  in  the  North. 

378.  Silage  from  legumes.— The  legumes  make  rather  un- 
certain silage  when  used  alone  because  due  to  the  higher  protein 
and  less  carbohydrate  content  the  proper  fermentation  may  not 
take  place.  However,  certain  combinations  of  legumes  and  grains, 
such  as  oats  and  peas,  make  excellent  silage  of  higher  protein 


210 


BETTER    DAIRY   FARMING 


content  than  corn.    However,  none  of  them  are  equal  to  corn  in 
terms  of  food  value  produced  per  acre. 

Pasture,  Soilage,  Roots  and  Other  Succulent 
Roughages 
For  two  or  three  months  of  the  year  or  even  longer,   dairy 
animals  depend  primarily  on  pasture  for  their  feed.  When  cows  are 


Ayrshires  at  Pasture 
Owned  by  Edgerstown  Farm,  Princeton,  X.  J. 

on  pasture  the  dairyman  gets  his  milk  for  the  least  trouble  and  ex- 
pense for  feed  and  thus  it  is  very  important  that  he  maintain  his 
pastures  in  as  good  shape  as  possible. 

379.  Improvement  of  pastures. — Most  of  the  land  used  for 
pasture  is  that  which  is  either  too  wet,  stony  or  hilly  for  cultiva- 
tion, or  too  worn  out  to  grow  crops  satisfactorily.  A  large  propor- 
tion falls  into  the  latter  class  and  thus  the  question  of  better 
pastures  is  largely  one  of  improvement  of  these  poor  lands.   Most 


THE  SUCCULENT  ROUGHAGES        217 

of  these  lands  are  acid,  clover  has  disappeared  and  weeds  have 
taken  its  place.  The  best  aid  in  building  up  these  pastures  so  that 
a  good  stand  of  grasses  will  come  in  is  the  use  of  lime.  Acid 
phosphate  will  also  help.  Getting  clover  back  into  the  pasture 
through  the  use  of  lime  and  acid  phosphate  means  more  nutritious 
forage  and  the  improvement  of  the  soil  through  the  addition  of 
nitrogen  by  the  legume. 

380.  Use  lime  and  acid  phosphate. — If  one  does  not  wish  to 
go  to  the  labor  of  plowing  up  the  old  pasture  and  reseeding  or  if 
its  nature  makes  plowing  difficult,  the  lime  and  phosphate  may  be 
added  as  a  top  dressing.  However,  the  effect  is  much  slower,  for 
it  takes  time  for  the  materials  added  to  penetrate  the  soil.  It 
will  take  at  least  three  years  to  get  much  effect  from  such  a  top 
dressing. 

381.  Ploughing  and  reseeding. — On  the  poorest  land  where 
the  vegetation  is  mostly  weeds,  ploughing  and  reseeding  are  cer- 
tainly the  best  practice.  The  weeds  will  be  destroyed  at  once  and 
the  lime  and  phosphate  will  take  effect  immediately.  The  pasture 
is  best  ploughed  late  in  the  fall,  the  lime  and  phosphate  being 
applied  either  before  harrowing  or  early  the  next  spring.  Use  one 
ton  of  lime  and  200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  per  acre.  The  next 
spring  the  grass  seed  mixture  can  be  sowed  with  oats.  The  next 
year  a  crop  of  hay  may  be  cut  and  the  third  year  the  land  is  ready 
to  be  pastured.  It  may  be  pastured  lightly  the  second  year,  but 
cutting  for  hay  enables  the  clover  to  come  in  better.  Further,  a 
good  hay  crop  will  repay  in  part  for  the  labor  and  fertilizer  used  to 
establish  the  pasture.  A  good  pasture  lasting  many  years  should 
result,  where  the  soil  is  not  too  poor. 

382.  Grasses  for  reseeding. — Only  certain  grasses  will  grow 
on  a  distinct  soil  type.  If  the  farmer  knows  by  previous  observa- 
tion what  grasses  will  grow  on  the  land  in  question  he  should  sow 
these  only.  However,  he  usually  does  not  have  this  knowledge 
and  further  the  soil  may  differ  in  the  same  field.  Thus,  it  is  safer 
to  use  a  mixture  of  several  grasses. 

Montgomery,  in  Cornell  Extension  Bulletin  46,  suggests  the 
following  mixtures  and  amounts  for  one  acre: 


218  BETTER   DAIRY  '  FARMING 

1.  Field  to  be  hayed  one  or  two  years,  then  pastured 

! timothy 8  pounds 

red  clover 2  pounds 

alsike  clover 2  pounds 

Kentucky  bluegrass 2  pounds 

white  clover 2  pounds 

redtop 2  pounds 

Orchard  grass* 2  pounds 

Total 20  pounds 

2.  Field  not  hayed — pasture  only 

Timothy 4  pounds 

Alsike  clover 2  pounds 

Kentucky  bluegrass 2  pounds 

White  clover 2  pounds 

Orchard  grass 2  pounds 

Redtop 2  pounds 

Meadow  fescue 2  pounds 

Total 16  pounds 

3.  For  very  unproductive  or  wet  land: 

Alsike  clover 2  pounds 

Canada  bluegrass 4  pounds 

White  clover 2  pounds 

Orchard  grass 4  pounds 

Redtop 4  pounds 

Total 16  pounds 

*  Meadow  fescue  may  be  substituted  for  orchard  grass  on  the  best  limestone  soils. 

383.  Grasses  differ  in  value. — The  feeding  value  of  pasture 
grass  will  depend  upon  the  variety  of  grasses.  A  pasture  contain- 
ing considerable  clover  will  furnish  the  cow  much  more  protein 
and  lime  than  where  the  grasses  are  made  up  of  non-legumes. 
The  same  advantage  for  legumes  hold  here  as  in  the  case  of  the  dry 
roughages  and  this  is  an  important  thing  to  remember  in  seeding 
and  fertilizing  the  pasture. 

384.  Pasture  aids  assimilation  of  lime. — There  is  a  response 
in  milk  production  when  animals  are  turned  out  on  pasture, — 
a  response  which  seems  out  of  proportion  to  the  feed.  It  has  been 
explained  on  the  basis  of  succulence,  the  high  digestibility  of  the 
grass,  its  content  of  easily  assimilated  minerals  and  on  other 
grounds.  Now,  as  we  have  mentioned  in  discussing  minerals,  we 
know  that  green  feed  contains  something  which  aids  in  lime  assimi- 
lation. When  this  important  discovery  is  considered  in  the  light 
of  the  fact  that  on  a  winter  ration  a  dairy  cow  takes  lime  out  of 
her  bones  to  make  milk  and  that  this  drain  on  her  bones  must  be 


THE  SUCCULENT  ROUGHAGES       219 

replaced,  the  response  of  animals  to  pasture  takes  on  a  new  mean- 
ing. The  desirability  of  good  pasture,  even  during  the  dry  period, 
since  lime  is  being  restored  to  the  bones  at  this  period,  thus  be- 
comes increasingly  important.    (13,  38) 

385.  Soiling  crops. — These  crops  are  grown  to  furnish  a  suc- 
cession of  green  feed  to  supplement  the  pasture  as  it  fails  in  the 
late  summer  and  fall.  Peas  and  oats,  soybeans,  alfalfa,  corn  and 
various  clovers  and  grasses  are  among  the  crops  grown  for  this 
purpose. 

A  chart  should  be  prepared  showing  the  crops  to  be  grown,  the 
acreage,  and  the  time  of  sowing  and  harvest.  The  kinds  of  crops 
and  the  times  of  planting  will  depend  on  the  locality.  The  acreage 
will  be  governed  by  the  number  of  animals.  However,  the  farmer 
cannot  plan  very  accurately  here  because  the  kind  of  season 
which  will  cause  the  pastures  to  fail  early,  thus  making  the  amount 
of  green  crops  needed  a  large  one,  will  also  probably  cause  a  poor 
yield  of  these  crops. 

386.  Planning  for  green  feed.— The  following  table  illus- 
trates what  we  mean  by  a  chart  to  be  used  in  planning  for  a  suc- 
cession of  soilage.  The  acreage  suggested  should  provide  a  reason- 
able amount  of  supplementary  green  feed  for  a  herd  of  12  or  15 
cows,  assuming  that  some  pasture  is  available: 

Crop  Acres  Date  of  Seeding       Period  of  Cutting 

Oats  and  peas ^  Apr.  2            June  25 — July  4 

Oats  and  peas y%  Apr.  10          July  5 — July  10 

Alfalfa,  second  cutting Y2  July  11 — July  20 

Oats  and  peas Y^  May  5           July  21 — July  31 

Alfalfa,     third    cutting,     or 

clover,  second  cutting.  ...  J^  Sept.  1 — Sept.  15 

Sweet  corn 1  June  10          Sept.  16 — Oct.  15 

Soiling  crops  should  be  reasonably  mature  before  they  are  cut 
for  feeding,  because  when  too  green  they  are  mostly  water, — peas 
should  be  podded,  oats  should  be  in  the  milk  stage,  etc.  The  best 
results  are  obtained  by  cutting  and  hauling  the  green  crop  to  the 
barn  daily.  If  left  in  the  field  it  wilts  rapidly  and  the  object  for 
which  it  is  grown,  namely,  to  provide  succulence,  is  lost.  At  the 
barn  the  crop  should  be  fed  the  day  it  is  cut  unless  it  can  be  spread 


220  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

out.  If  left  in  piles  it  spoils  quickly  in  hot  weather.  Some  farmers 
find  it  convenient  to  spread  the  green  crop  out  on  the  barn  floor. 
This  will  keep  it  from  spoiling  but  the  more  it  dries  out  the  less 
is  its  value  as  succulence.  It  must  be  remembered  that  soiling- 
crops  contain  lots  of  water  and  that  two  or  three  times  as  much 
must  be  fed  as  of  dry  roughage  to  furnish  the  same  amount  of 
nutrients.    (47) 

387.  Mangels. — Mangels  are  the  favorite  roots  for  the  dairy 
farm,  because  they  can  be  grown  with  the  least  labor  and  because 
they  have  the  best  keeping  qualities.  They  are  the  greatest 
yielders,  in  terms  of  green  material,  but  in  terms  of  dry  matter 
their  superiority  is  not  so  great.  Mangels,  as  is  the  case  with  all 
roots,  should  be  stored  where  it  is  dry,  dark,  well  ventilated,  and 
cool.  They  should  not  be  fed  in  any  large  amount  when  freshly 
harvested,  as  scouring  may  result. 

388.  Other  root  crops. — Rutabagas  and  sugar  beets  are  other 
roots  which  may  be  grown.  The  former,  also  called  swede,  are  the 
easier  to  cultivate,  but  do  not  produce  as  much  dry  matter.  They 
should  be  fed  after,  rather  than  before,  milking  because,  other- 
wise, they  may  taint  the  milk.  Sugar  beets  are  very  palatable  and 
are  the  roots  preferred  by  many  for  feeding  cows  on  test. 

389.  Feeding  roots. — Roots  are  generally  fed  by  slicing  them 
and  placing  in  the  manger  with  the  grain  sprinkled  over  them. 
From  30  to  60  pounds  per  day  can  be  fed.  To  obtain  the  same 
amount  of  food  value  the  amount  fed  must  be  somewhat  larger 
than  with  silage  because  the  latter  has  more  dry  matter.  For 
the  cow  on  test  the  addition  of  roots  seems  to  increase  the  milk 
flow  even  where  silage  is  being  fed.  This  is  attributed  to  their 
cooling  effect.  It  has  been  shown  that,  except  where  records  are 
sought,  the  feeding  of  roots  in  addition  to  silage  is  not  justified 
because  the  increase  in  milk  will  not  pay  for  the  additional  feed. 
However,  where  roots  are  fed  somewhat  less  grain  is  necessary. 
Ten  pounds  of  roots  will  replace  one  pound  of  grain. 


CHAPTER   XXVI 


CORN  AND  WHEAT  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS 
Corn  and  Its  By-Products 

The  corn  kernel  is  lower  in  protein  than  most  of  the  other  cereal 
grains.  It  contains  little  fiber,  is  rich  in  starch  and  fat,  and  thus 
ranks  high  in  total  digestible  nutrients.  It  is  low  in  mineral  matter, 
especially  lime. 

390.  Corn  meal. — This  is  the  entire  ground  corn  grain.  Be- 
cause of  its  high  percentage  of  oil  it  becomes  stale  to  the  taste 
on  standing,  and  thus  its  palatability  decreases.  It  possesses 
little  bulk,  and,  therefore,  is  "  heating."  We  may  have  either 
white  or  yellow  corn  meal.  There  is  considerable  evidence  that 
the  latter  has  a  higher  vitamine  value  but  there  is  no  other  dif- 
ference.    Corn  chop  is  another  name  for  corn  meal. 

391.  Corn  and  cob  meal. — This  product  consists  of  the  ground 
ear  corn.     The  cobs  have  a  rubber-like  consistency  and  require 


Corn  is  the  Foundation  of  all  Good  Rations 
221 


222  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

much  power  for  grinding.  The  product  must  be  fine  or  the  animal 
will  not  eat  it.  It  is  not  likely  to  become  rancid  and  has  better 
physical  condition  than  corn  meal  because  the  cobs  add  bulk. 
It  is  nearly  equal  to  corn  meal  in  feeding  value. 

392.  Cereal  milk  by-products. — In  cereal  mills,  corn  is 
milled  to  produce  the  so-called  "breakfast  foods"  such  as  hominy, 
corn  flakes,  etc.  The  by-products  used  as  feeds  are  corn  bran,  corn 
feed  meal,  hominy  feed  and  corn  germ  meal. 

393.  Hominy  feed. — This  feed  has  more  fat  and  somewhat 
more  protein  than  corn  meal.  It  has  more  fiber  and  is  therefore 
more  bulky.  Due  to  its  greater  bulk  and  smaller  percentage  of 
water,  hominy  will  keep  better  in  storage  than  corn  meal.  It  is 
also  better  adapted  to  combining  in  rations  than  is  corn  meal, 
which  requires  special  feeds  to  supplement  its  lack  of  bulk.  Thus, 
hominy  is  much  more  widely  used  in  the  dairy  ration  than  corn 
meal,  although  on  the  basis  of  nutrient  content  the  two  feeds  are 
about  equal.  When  the  word  "horniny"  is  used,  white  hominy  is 
meant.  Most  of  the  corn  used  in  the  cereal  mill  is  white.  There 
is  also  a  similar  feed  from  yellow  corn,  called  yellow  hominy  feed. 
Hominy  meal  and  hominy  chop  are  other  names  for  hominy  feed. 

394.  Corn  germ  meal. — This  feed  is  nearly  twice  as  high  in 
protein  as  corn  meal,  and  is  somewhat  higher  in  fat  and  also  in 
fiber.  It  is  an  excellent  medium  protein  feed  of  high  digestibility, 
but  its  palatability  decreases  on  standing  since  rancidity  develops 
from  its  high  fat  content.  Corn  germ  meal  is  one  of  the  less  im- 
portant corn  feeds  because  a  relatively  small  amount  of  it  is  pro- 
duced. A  similar  product  is  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of 
starch  from  corn. 

395.  Corn  feed  meal. — Corn  feed  meal  is  a  by-product  either 
from  the  manufacture  of  cracked  corn  or  table  meal.  It  is  rather 
variable  in  analysis  and,  therefore,  in  feeding  value,  depending 
on  how  the  milling  process  is  carried  out.  It  is  usually  spoken  of  as 
similar  to  corn  meal.  Actually,  by  reason  of  its  higher  fiber  and 
bulk,  it  more  closely  resembles  hominy,  However,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  it  is  more  variable  in  value  than  either  corn 
meal  or  hominy. 


CORN  AND  WHEAT— THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS     223 

The  manufacture  of  oil,  starch,  sugars,  and  syrups  from  corn 
gives  us  gluten  feed,  gluten  meal  and  corn  germ  meal. 

396.  Gluten  feed. — This  product  has  over  twice  as  much 
protein  as  corn  meal  and  is  about  equal  in  total  digestible  nutri- 
ents. It  is  one  of  the  most  useful  feeds,  as  it  is  a  high  protein  feed 
which  is  usually  comparatively  cheap  and  which  has  the  proper 
bulk  to  lend  itself  well  to  combination  with  a  large  variety  of 
materials.  The  protein  of  gluten  feed  is  not  of  as  high  a  quality 
as  that  of  many  other  feeds,  thus  gluten  feed  should  not  be  fed 
alone.    It  should  never  make  up  over  one-half  the  grain  ration. 

397.  Gluten  meal. — Gluten  meal  is  that  portion  of  the  corn 
kernel  that  remains  after  the  separation  of  the  larger  part  of  the 
starch,  germ  and  bran  in  the  manufacture  of  starch  and  sugars. 
This  product  has  nearly  50  per  cent  more  protein  than  gluten  feed 
and  somewhat  more  total  digestible  nutrients.  It  has  little  fiber 
or  ash  and  is  a  heavy  feed.  Its  lack  of  bulk  limits  its  usefulness  as 
compared  with  gluten  feed.  The  particular  place  of  gluten  meal  in 
the  ration  is  where  a  heavy,  high  protein  feed,  low  in  fiber,  is  needed 
to  supplement  ingredients  which  are  low  in  protein  and  bulky. 

398.  Corn  distillers'  grains. — This  is  the  corn  feed  which  is 
a  by-product  of  the  distillery.  Corn  distillers'  grains  is  a  high  pro- 
tein feed,  which  is  very  digestible.  It  has  the  proper  bulk  and  a 
high  feeding  value.  The  feed  is  very  useful  as  an  ingredient  of  the 
ration  for  cows  on  test.  Unfortunately,  there  is  little  of  it  on  the 
market  at  the  present  time. 

Wheat  and  Its  By-Products 

In  the  manufacture  of  flour  the  miller  tries  to  separate  from 
the  rest  of  the  wheat  kernel  as  large  a  percentage  as  possible  of 
the  white  floury  portion.  He  actually  gets  about  70  per  cent  of 
high-grade  flour  in  the  process.  The  remainder  goes  into  feed. 
It  consists  of  bran,  middlings,  red  dog  flour,  and  screenings. 
Taken  as  a  whole  these  by-products  have  a  higher  percentage  of 
protein,  fat  and  minerals  than  the  flour,  and  have  a  greater  nutri- 
ent content  than  the  entire  kernel,  except  as  regards  carbohy- 
drates.   Thus,  the  wheat  by-products  have  a  high  feeding  value. 


224  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

399.  Whole  or  ground  wheat.— It  is  well  known  to  all  that 
the  entire  grain  is  used  relatively  little  for  feed.  However,  wheat 
having  many  broken  or  shrunken  kernels  and  containing  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  screenings  brings  a  poor  price  for  milling,  yet 
its  feeding  value  may  not  be  appreciably  lowered.  Thus  the  farmer 
should  feed  such  wheat  rather  than  market  it.  Whole  or  ground 
wheat  contains  more  protein  and  mineral  matter  than  corn  and 
is  at  least  equal  in  carbohydrates,  but  is  much  lower  in  fat.  It 
is  a  palatable,  highly  digestible  feed. 

400.  Screenings. — Previous  to  milling,  the  wheat  is  cleaned  to 
separate  out  bits  of  straw,  imperfect  kernels,  weed  seeds,  etc. 
These  materials,  called  screenings,  are  either  mixed  and  sold  with 
the  other  wheat  bj^-products,  or  marketed  in  proprietary  feeds. 

Screenings  vary  greatly  in  feeding  value.  A  sample  consisting 
largely  of  broken  wheat  and  other  grains  has  a  high  feeding  value, 
while  one  consisting  of  straw,  dust  and  certain  weed  seeds  may  be 
practically  worthless.  Screenings  must  be  ground  so  as  to  destroy 
the  life  of  the  weed  seeds.  It  is  believed  that  most  mills  using 
screenings  in  quantity  are  equipped  to  do  this.  Thus,  this  objec- 
tion is  no  longer  a  serious  one. 

The  screenings  in  wheat  feeds  do  not  present  a  serious  question, 
because  by  law  they  cannot  be  present  in  greater  amount  than 
is  contained  in  the  wTheat  from  which  the  feed  was  made.  The 
purchase  of  a  proprietary  feed  containing  screenings  is  another 
question.  Because  of  the  indefinite  nature  of  the  ingredient  in 
question,  it  is  believed  that  no  mixed  feed  containing  screenings 
should  be  bought  unless  manufactured  under  an  open  formula 
by  a  firm  whom  the  farmer  feels  he  can  trust.    (113,  114,  115) 

401.  Wheat  bran. — The  outer  layers  of  the  wheat  kernel 
comprise  the  bran.  The  product  is  very  rich  in  phosphorus. 
Though  containing  more  protein  than  the  entire  wheat  kernel 
and  other  cereal  grains,  bran  is  not  equal  to  them  in  total  di- 
gestible nutrients.  This  is  partly  due  to  its  rather  high  fiber  con- 
tent. It  seems,  however,  to  have  a  value  not  shown  by  its  nutrient 
content,  particularly  in  rations  for  dairy  cows.  This  extra  value 
is  probably  due  to  its  laxative  effect  and  to  its  bulk,  making  it 


CORN  AND  WHEAT— THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS     225 

very  useful  for  combining  with  a  wide  variety  of  materials  in  the 
dairy  ration. 

A  good  sample  of  bran  should  consist  of  large  flakes,  light  in 
weight  and  free  from  foreign  materials.  Where  the  screenings 
contained  in  the  wheat  from  which  the  bran  was  made  is  com- 
bined with  it,  the  feed  is  sold  as  "  wheat  bran  with  mill  run 
screenings."    This  is  the  usual  product  now  found  on  the  market. 

402.  Red  dog  flour. — This  product  consists  of  flour  with  some 
fine  particles  of  bran.  Its  protein  and  fat  content  are  similar  to 
that  of  bran  but  it  contains  a  minimum  of  crude  fiber  and  thus 
exceeds  bran  in  total  digestible  nutrients.  It  is  a  much  more  ex- 
pensive feed  than  bran  and  lacks  the  bulk  and  laxative  properties 
which  make  the  latter  so  valuable  in  the  dairy  ration.  Red  dog 
is  a  very  useful  feed  where  low  fiber  is  desired,  being  especialty 
valuable  for  young  pigs  and  calves. 

403.  Standard  middlings. — This  product  is  intermediate 
between  bran  and  red  dog,  consisting  of  fine  particles  of  bran  to- 
gether with  some  flour.  It  contains  less  fiber  than  bran  but  more 
than  red  dog,  as  would  be  expected.  Similarly,  its  bulk  lies  be- 
tween the  two.  The  protein  and  fat  content  of  the  three  feeds  is 
similar.  Pound  for  pound,  bran  is  preferred  to  standard  middlings 
in  the  dairy  ration.  The  middlings  may  be  used  if  cheap  enough, 
provided  it  is  recognized  that  this  feed  is  not  a  substitute  for  bran 
as  regards  bulk  and  laxative  effect. 

404.  Flour  middlings. — This  feed  is  a  mixture  of  standard 
middlings  and  red  dog  flour  in  the  proportions  obtained  in  the 
usual  milling  process.    Its  properties  and  value  are  thus  evident. 

405.  Wheat  mixed  feed. — This  is  a  term  used  for  various 
mixtures  of  bran,  red  dog  flour  and  middlings.  Its  feeding  value 
varies  according  to  the  mixture. 

406.  Palmo  middlings. — This  material  is  a  by-product  from 
the  manufacture  of  tin  plate.  In  putting  the  finish  on  the  latter, 
it  is  passed  through  palm  oil  and  the  excess  oil  later  removed  by 
absorption  on  wheat  middlings.  The  middlings  are  later  cleaned 
and  sold  as  palmo  middlings.  The  product  is  usually  lower  in 
moisture  and  higher  in  fat  than  the  original  middlings. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
OTHER    GRAINS    AND    THEIR    BY-PRODUCTS 

Oats,  Barley,  Buckwheat,  Rye  and  Rice 

Oats  are  one  of  our  most  useful  feeds,  not  only  for  horses  but 
for  dairy  animals  as  well.  The  part  left  after  the  hull  is  removed 
is  called  the  groat.  This  is  the  part  used  for  human  food.  The  hull 
has  less  than  one-third  as  much  protein  and  over  three  times  as 
much  fiber  as  the  entire  kernel. 

407.  Whole  and  ground  oats. — The  oat  kernel  is  covered 
with  a  husk  or  hull  which  constitutes  an  average  of  30  per  cent  of 
its  weight.  This  hull  together  with  its  awn  and  beard  makes  the 
oat  light.  In  very  light  oats,  the  husk  may  comprise  as  much  as 
45  per  cent  of  the  entire  kernel.  The  lighter  the  oat,  the  lower 
is  its  protein,  the  higher  its  fiber,  and  the  less  its  feeding  value. 

Oats  have  somewhat  more  digestible  protein  than  corn  but 
are  lower  in  total  digestible  nutrients.  They  contain  much  more 
fiber  than  corn  due  to  the  large  percentage  of  hull.  This  fact 
makes  them  bulky  and  better  adapted  than  corn  for  combining  with 
a  variety  of  materials  in  the  ration.  Oats  are  particularly  useful 
for  lightening  up  a  heavy  mixture.  They  are  palatable  and  easily 
digested.  For  the  dairy  ration  they  should  be  crushed  or  ground. 
We  prefer  crushed  oats  to  a  finely  ground  product. 

408.  Oats  good  for  young  stock. — Oats  are  very  useful  as  an 
ingredient  of  the  grain  ration  for  calves  and  young  stock.  Some 
feeders  recommend  the  whole  kernels  for  this  purpose  but  we 
believe  that  they  will  be  better  digested  if  the  hull  is  broken  by 
crushing  rather  than  if  mastication  and  rumination  are  depended 
upon  to  do  it.  If  the  indigestible  hull  is  not  broken  the  digestive 
juices  cannot  get  at  the  material  beneath.  Even  crushed  oats  alone 
will  serve  fairly  well  as  a  grain  ration  for  young  stock. 

Ground  or  crushed  oats  also  make  an  excellent  ingredient  of  the 
mixture  used  in  fitting  animals  for  test.  Their  value  here  has  been 

226 


OTHER  GRAINS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS     227 

repeatedly  proven  according  to  the  records  of  how  cows  have  been 
fed  in  preparation  for  records.  Doubtless  much  of  the  good  effect 
obtained  from  including  them  in  the  ration  here  is  due  to  their 
lightness,  bulk  and  ease  of  digestibility. 

Ground  oats  with  the  hulls  sifted  out  make  a  feed  low  in  fiber 
which,  though  rather  expensive,  is  frequently  used  for  feeding  young 
calves  and  pigs.  Such  a  material  is  frequently  found  in  proprie- 
tary calf  and  pig  meals  under  such  names  as  oatmeal,  oat  flour 
and  ground  oat  groats. 

409.  Oat  feed. — Everybody  is  familiar,  through  many  a  break- 
fast, with  the  human  food  obtained  from  oats.  The  milling  of 
this  cereal  for  oatmeal  is  one  of  our  largest  food  industries.  The 
by-product  sold  for  feed  is  called  oat  feed  or  oatmeal-mill  by-prod- 
uct. It  has  very  little  feeding  value,  but  merits  discussion  because 
of  the  large  amount  which  is  sold  in  proprietary  dairy  feeds. 

The  residue  from  the  oatmeal-mill  consists  of  oat  hulls,  oat 
shorts,  oat  middlings  and  dust.  However,  the  hulls  are  in  by  far 
the  largest  proportion  and  this  is  what  makes  oat  feed  so  poor. 
Its  average  analysis  is  as  follows:  protein,  5.5  per  cent;  fat,  2 
per  cent;  carbohydrates,  52  per  cent;  fiber,  27  per  cent.  The 
above  analysis  shows  that  oat  feed  does  not  have  a  higher  nutrient 
content  than  timothy  hay.  It  contains  somewhat  more  digestible 
protein  but  less  total  digestible  nutrients.  Thus,  oat  feed  must  be 
classed  as  a  low  grade  roughage,  not  as  a  concentrate.  This  fact 
must  be  borne  in  mind  in  considering  the  place  of  oat  feed  in  the 
dairy  ration.  No  one  would  think  of  buying  chopped  oat  straw 
to  put  in  his  grain  ration. 

410.  Clipped  oat  by-product. — Oats  are  frequently  clipped  to 
decrease  their  bulk  either  at  oatmeal  mills  or  elevators.  There  are 
removed  during  this  process  the  fuzzy  ends,  a  little  of  the  inner 
kernel  and  also  the  refuse  matter  from  the  grain,  such  as  chaff, 
straw  and  weed  seeds.  Oat  clips  or  clipped  oat  by-product  is  the 
name  under  which  the  resulting  product  appears  on  the  market. 
The  product  is  light,  bulky  and  of  a  chaffy,  fibrous  character. 
The  material  is  widely  used  in  proprietary  feeds  as  an  absorbent 
for  molasses.    Though  we  believe  that  the  clips  on  the  average 


228  BETTER    DAIRY    FARMING 

should  have  a  somewhat  greater  feeding  value  than  oat  feed,  they 
must  be  classed  with  the  poorer  roughages. 

411.  Ground  barley. — The  barley  kernel  is  covered  with  a 
hull  which  constitutes  some  15  per  cent  of  the  entire  seed,  in 
comparison  to  the  oat  kernel  where  the  hull  makes  up  30  per  cent 
of  the  whole.  Barley  is  a  rather  bulky,  highly  digestible,  low 
protein  feed,  which  may  be  used  more  or  less  interchangeably  with 
corn  and  oats,  if  it  is  available  on  the  farm.  It  is  believed  that 
for  all  classes  of  daily  animals,  crushed  or  ground  barley  is  pref- 
erable to  whole.  For  milk  production,  tests  indicate  that  ground 
barley  is  equal  to  corn  meal,  while  for  feeding  pigs  it  is  also  a  close 
competitor  of  corn.  Ground  barley  is  a  useful  feed  for  calves  and 
young  stock. 

412.  Feed  barley. — In  general  barley  will  be  found  more  ex- 
pensive to  purchase  than  a  mill  feed  of  equal  value  as  regards  total 
digestible  nutrients,  such  as  hominy.  Where  barley  is  purchased 
one  must  be  careful  to  secure  a  good  product  since  varying  amounts 
of  foreign  material  may  be  present.  Bylaw,  ground  barley  must  be 
made  from  grain  containing  not  less  than  90  per  cent  pure  barley. 
"Mixed  feed  barley"  is  a  term  used  to  cover  a  product  containing 
not  less  than  75  per  cent  of  pure  barley,  while  "feed  barley"' 
is  a  name  under  which  barley  screenings  may  be  sold.  These  terms 
are  very  confusing,  particularly  as  they  must  be  distinguished 
from  barley  feed  and  barley  mixed  feed,  to  be  described  later. 
However,  the  only  way  to  be  sure  of  not  being  cheated  is  to  know 
what  these  various  terms  mean. 

413.  Brewers'  dried  grains.— The  malting  of  barley  furnishes 
two  by-products  for  feed,  malt  sprouts  and  brewers'  grains.  The 
latter  has  about  25  per  cent  of  protein.  It  is  bulky  and  its  high 
fiber  content  must  be  balanced  off  by  using  with  it  other  feeds,  low 
in  fiber.  On  the  basis  of  digestible  nutrients  furnished,  it  ranks 
somewhat  above  wheat  bran  but  considerably  below  gluten  feed. 

414.  Malt  sprouts. — This  by-product  is  also  a  bulky  feed 
having  as  much  digestible  protein  as  brewers'  grains,  though  of  a 
poorer  quality.  The  feeding  value  is  less  than  that  of  brewers' 
dried  grains. 


OTHER  GRAINS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS     229 

415.  Barley  feed. — At  the  cereal  mill  two  products  may  be 
manufactured  for  human  food, — pearl  barley  and  barley  flour. 
The  residues  from  both  processes  appear  to  be  similar,  namely  chaff, 
outer  coatings  and  floury  residues.  However,  the  pearl  barley  prod- 
uct called  barley  feed  contains  more  of  the  flour  and  less  of  the 
hull  than  does  the  flour  by-product,  barley  mixed  feed.  The  former 
contains  somewhat  more  protein  and  twice  as  much  fat  and  fiber 
as  ground  barley  and  should  be  at  least  equal  to  it  in  feeding 
value.   Barley  mixed  feed  is  a  poorer  and  more  variable  product. 

416.  Ground  buckwheat.— Though  not  one  of  the  cereals, 
buckwheat  is  usually  discussed  with  them  but  ranks  lower  in 
feeding  value.  It  contains  somewhat  more  digestible  protein 
than  corn,  but  is  much  lower  in  total  digestible  nutrients.  The 
kernel  is  about  one-third  hull  and  as  a  result  ground  buckwheat 
has  a  high  fiber  content, — about  the  same  as  oats.  This  hull  has 
much  less  nutrient  value  than  wheat  straw.  Ground  buckwheat 
is  most  nearly  like  ground  oats  and  wheat  bran  and  could  replace 
these  feeds  in  mixtures  we  have  listed.  Though  containing  some- 
what more  total  digestible  nutrients  than  bran,  buckwheat  does 
not  contain  as  much  protein  nor  is  it  laxative  and  thus  does  not 
have  as  great  an  all-round  value  for  mixing  in  rations.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  where  prices  are  such  that  the  farmer  can  sell  his  buck- 
wheat and  buy  an  equal  amount  of  bran  with  the  money  he  had 
better  do  so. 

417.  Buckwheat  middlings. — The  milling  of  buckwheat  to 
produce  flour  for  human  food  is  carried  on  in  a  number  of  small 
mills.  The  by-products  are  hulls  and  middlings.  Buckwheat 
middlings  is  a  very  excellent  feed  for  milk  production  provided 
it  is  as  free  as  possible  from  hulls.  A  high-grade  product  will 
contain  more  protein  than  gluten  feed  and  will  be  nearly  as  high 
in  total  digestible  nutrients.  Thus  buckwheat  middlings  may  be 
substituted  for  gluten  in  mixtures.  Since  some  samples  contain 
more  hulls  than  others,  the  purchaser  should  make  sure  that  he 
is  getting  a  good  grade  by  looking  at  the  guarantee,  bearing  in 
mind  that  an  average  sample  should  contain  28  per  cent  of  protein 
and  not  over  6  per  cent  of  fiber. 


230  BETTER  DAIRY   FARMING 

418.  Buckwheat  feed. — It  has  been  stated  that  hulls  are  a. 
by-product  of  flour  milling.  They  contain  45  per  cent  of  fiber  and 
little  protein  or  fat  and  thus  have  practically  no  feeding  value. 
They  should  be  thrown  away.  Many  millers  are  unwilling  to  do 
this,  but  instead  mix  hulls  with  middlings  and  setl  the  product  as 
buckwheat  feed.  Such  a  feed  may  be  fairly  good  or  practically 
worthless  depending  on  the  amount  of  hulls  added.  Of  course,  the 
more  hulls,  the  less  protein  and  the  more  fiber  and  thus  the  guar- 
antee will  give  an  indication  of  the  value  of  the  feed.  However, 
many  small  millers  sell  buckwheat  feed  locally  without  any 
guarantee  and  cause  the  dairyman  to  buy  a  lot  of  hulls  under  the 
impression  that  a  feed  nearly  as  good  as  buckwheat  middlings 
is  being  bought  at  a  bargain.  Mixing  a  worthless  material  such  as 
buckwheat  hulls  with  a  high-grade  feed  like  the  middlings  is  wrong 
in  principle  even  if  a  fairly  good  feed  results.  The  high-grade  feed 
should  be  sold  for  what  it  is  worth  and  the  useless  stuff  thrown 
away.  Certainly  buckwheat  feed  should  not  be  bought  except 
under  a  definite  guarantee  as  to  analysis. 

419.  Ground  rye. — The  rye  kernel  is  very  similar  to  wheat  in 
analysis.  The  ground  grain  may  be  used  in  the  dairy  ration  in 
place  of  such  feeds  as  oats,  barley  or  corn.  It  ranks  somewhat 
higher  in  total  digestible  nutrients  than  barley,  but  lower  than 
corn.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  ground  rye  is  as  valuable  as 
either  ground  barley  or  corn  meal  for  milk  production  but  it  is  a 
useful  feed  where  the  farmer  can  grow  it  to  advantage  over  the 
other  grains  or  finds  it  especially  suited  in  his  rotation  of  crops. 

420.  Rye  middlings  or  rye  feed. — Formerly  in  the  milling 
of  rye  for  flour,  bran  and  middlings  were  separated  as  by-products 
and  sold  separately.  Now  they  are  usually  combined  and  sold 
under  the  names  rye  feed  or  rye  middlings.  The  rye  by-products 
are  similar  in  analysis  and  feeding  value  to  the  wheat  by-products, 
but  so  little  of  them  are  produced  that  they  are  of  small  importance 
as  feeds. 

421.  Rice  bran. — This  is  a  highly  nutritious  feed  containing 
around  12  per  cent  each  of  protein,  fat  and  fiber.  The  fat  content  is 
rather  variable  and  frequently  runs  considerably  higher  than  the 


OTHER  GRAINS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS     231 

figure  given.  Due  to  this  high  fat  content  rice  bran  may  quickly 
cake  and  become  rancid.  It  is  high  in  the  B  vitamine  and  con- 
tains protein  of  excellent  quality.  Rice  bran  could  be  used  in  place 
of  wheat  bran  in  mixtures. 

422.  Rice  polish. — This  feed  is  somewhat  lower  in  protein 
and  fat  than  the  bran,  but  also  is  very  much  lower  in  fiber.  A  good 
product  should  not  contain  over  3  per  cent.  Thus  the  polish  is 
especially  useful  for  feeding  young  calves  and  pigs,  and  is  a  fre- 
quent ingredient  of  calf  meals.  It  could  replace  corn  meal  in  vari- 
ous rations. 

423.  Rice  hulls. — The  hulls  are  woody  and  tasteless,  and  have 
sharp  flinty  edges  and  needle-like  points,  which  are  irritating  to 
the  lining  of  the  digestive  tract.  They  should  never  be  fed  to 
animals.  Reputable  millers  use  them  for  fuel  or  packing  or  throw 
them  away  altogether.  The  best  samples  of  rice  bran  contain  some 
hulls  due  to  inability  to  get  a  complete  separation.  Some  millers 
may  allow  considerably  more  of  the  hulls  than  necessary  to  go 
into  the  bran. 

424.  Rice  feed. — A  mixture  of  hulls  and  bran  is  sometimes 
offered  for  sale  as  rice  feed.  Needless  to  say,  it  should  not  be 
bought  because  the  hulls  are  not  only  useless  but  also  harmful. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
THE  OIL  MEALS  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  BY-PRODUCTS 

The  oil  meals  comprise  a  class  of  feeding  stuffs  which  are  the 
residues  left  after  the  extraction  of  the  oil  from  various  seeds  and 
nuts.  In  general,  oil-bearing  seeds  are  much  higher  in  protein 
than  the  cereals,  while  the  fat  content  is  some  ten  times  as  high. 
Cottonseed  and  linseed  oil-meals  are  by  far  the  most  important, 
but  cocoanut  oil  meal,  peanut  oil  meal  and  soybean  oil  meal 
are  finding  increasing  use,  particularly  in  certain  sections  of  the 
country. 

425.  Cottonseed  by-products. — The  cottonseed,  formerly 
allowed  to  rot  after  the  cotton  was  removed,  now  furnishes  a 
great  variety  of  products  for  industrial  use  and  for  human  and 
animal  food.  The  oil,  which  is  the  main  product  of  the  cottonseed 
industry,  is  largely  used  for  human  food  as  salad  oil  and  lard 
and  butter  substitutes. 

426.  Cottonseed  hulls. — The  hull  is  of  smooth,  hard  texture 
and  has  little  if  any  feeding  value.  As  separated  in  the  manufac- 
turing process  the  hulls  contain  over  40  per  cent  of  crude  fiber  with 
only  4  to  5  per  cent  of  protein  and  2  per  cent  of  fat.  The 
protein  and  fat  content  is  mostly  due  to  incompletely  separated 
meats.  Despite  their  low  value  the  hulls  are  largely  marketed  in 
cottonseed  products  sold  as  feed  and  occasionally  as  " filler"  in 
proprietary  feeds. 

427.  The  cottonseed  meals. — Three  grades  of  cottonseed 
meal  are  recognized  by  official  definition:  41.12  per  cent  protein 
(choice  quality),  38.56  per  cent  protein  (prime  quality)  and  36 
per  cent  protein  (good  quality).  Color,  lint  content,  etc.,  are 
other  differentiating  factors,  besides  protein.  The  best  grade  is 
the  brightest  in  color.  While  it  is  true  that  products  differ  in  com- 
position according  to  the  place  where  the  source  was  grown,  the 
principal  difference  among  the  three  grades  is  hull  content, — the 
more  hull  the  less  protein  and  the  more  fiber.    It  is  not  possible 

232 


THE  OIL  MEALS  233 

to  separate  the  hulls  from  the  meats  completely  and  the  extent 
of  separation  differs  in  different  mills  according  to  their  machinery 
and  practice.  On  the  other  hand,  extra  hulls  may  be  added  to  the 
meal  as  it  is  ground.  This  is  a  common  practice.  That  is,  the 
presser  merely  dilutes  41  per  cent  protein  meal  up  with  hulls  and 
makes  36  per  cent.  Such  a  practice  makes  possible  a  larger  disposal 
of  the  hulls  as  feed.  It  is  believed  to  be  wrong  in  principle  to  dilute 
a  high-grade  product  with  a  material  so  poor  in  feeding  value 
that  the  farmer  would  not  think  of  buying  it  at  any  price  if  offered 
to  him  separately. 

428.  Choice  quality  most  economical. — The  41  per  cent 
protein  cottonseed  meal  is,  of  course,  the  highest  in  price,  but  on 
the  basis  of  total  digestible  nutrients  it  is  in  general  the  most 
economical  to  buy,  particularly  when  its  higher  manurial  value 
is  considered.  We  believe  that  dairymen  should  purchase  the 
highest  grade  meal.  At  least  they  should  remember  that  there 
are  three  grades  and  not  merely  buy  meal  regardless  of  protein 
content.  A  little  experience  enables  one  to  judge  roughly  the 
quality  of  cottonseed  meal  by  its  color  and  hull  content.  Fre- 
quently the  hulls  are  ground,  but  this  darkens  the  meal  even 
though  the  hulls  as  such  cannot  be  recognized. 

429.  Cottonseed  feed. — Any  mixture  of  meal  and  hulls  con- 
taining less  than  36  per  cent  protein  must  by  law  be  designated  as 
cottonseed  feed.  In  addition  to  being  a  further  dilution  of  the  meal 
with  low-grade  material,  it  is  open  to  the  additional  objection  of 
being  a  product  of  very  indefinite  value.  There  is  no  limit  to  the 
percentage  of  hulls  that  may  be  added.  Cottonseed  feeds  have 
been  reported  with  as  high  as  80  per  cent  of  hulls.  Such  a  product 
could  have  little  if  any  feeding  value. 

430.  Feeding  cottonseed  meal. — Cottonseed  meal  is  in 
most  years  about  the  cheapest  source  of  protein  which  can  be 
bought  for  the  dairy  ration  and  it  is  a  very  satisfactory  feed  for 
milk  production.  It  is  somewhat  constipating  and  this  fact  must 
be  remembered  in  choosing  the  other  ingredients. 

That  cottonseed  meal  is  harmful  to  young  calves  and  pigs  is 
well  known.    We  do  not  know  just  what  property  of  the  meal 


234  BETTER  DAIRY   FARMING 

causes  trouble  but  it  is  generally  believed  that  the  meal  contains 
a  poisonous  substance.  Dairy  cows  are  little  susceptible  to  the 
trouble  and  there  is  no  danger  in  feeding  them  any  moderate 
amount  of  the  meal.  We  do  not  believe  the  grain  ration  should  in 
general  contain  more  than  30  per  cent  cottonseed  meal,  but  this 
amount  may  be  raised  somewhat  if  the  animals  are  on  pasture  or 
receiving  silage  liberally.  There  is  some  basis  for  the  belief  that 
cows  fed  heavily  on  cottonseed  meal  are  likely  to  develop  garget 
or  other  udder  troubles.  Whether  this  possibility  is  due  to  the 
same  property  that  causes  trouble  in  young  pigs  and  calves  is 
not  known,  but  it  is  believed  that  the  meal  may  be  fed  in  the 
amount  we  have  stated  with  little  if  any  extra  likelihood  of  udder 
troubles. 

431.  Flaxseed  products. — Ground  flaxseed  is  sometimes  fed 
to  young  calves  along  with  skim  milk  or  as  an  ingredient  of  a  calf 
meal.  The  seed  is  about  one-third  oil,  thus  the  ground  product 
quickly  becomes  rancid. 

In  the  oil  pressing  process,  the  cleaned  seeds  are  ground,  heated 
and  pressed  to  extract  the  oil.  The  residue  which  is  in  the  form 
of  hard  slabs  or  "cake"  is  ground  to  give  the  oil  meal.  This 
method  is  called  the  old  process  (O.  P.)  in  distinction  to  a  new 
process,  which  at  one  time  came  into  use  but  was  later  largely 
abandoned,  whereby  the  oil  was  dissolved  out  instead  of  being- 
extracted  by  pressure. 

432.  Linseed  oil  meal. — This  feed  is  laxative  and  stimulating 
to  appetite  and  milk  flow  and  helps  keep  the  animals  in  good  con- 
dition. A  fine,  sleek,  oily  coat  results  from  the  feeding  of  Unseed 
oil  meal.  It  is  widely  used  in  feeding  for  records  and  is  a  particu- 
larly fine  feed  for  growing  animals.  We  like  to  have  it  as  an  in- 
gredient of  every  dairy  ration,  particularly  where  no  silage  is  fed. 
It  is  generally  somewhat  more  costly  on  a  total  digestible  nutrient 
basis  than  cottonseed  meal,  but  it  is  worth  more  because  of  the 
special  qualities  we  have  mentioned,  and  the  price  difference  at 
most  times  is  not  so  great  but  that  at  least  5  or  10  per  cent 
can  be  included  in  the  ration.  Its  laxative  properties  will  result 
in  scouring  when  used  in  too  large  amounts.     The  upper  limit 


THE  OIL  MEALS  235 

may  be  considered  as  20  to  30  per  cent,  depending  on  the  rest  of 
the  ration. 

433.  Peanut  oil  meal. — This  feed  contains  approximately 
47  per  cent  protein,  8  per  cent  fat  and  5  per  cent  fiber,  and  being 
highly  digestible,  is  thus  somewhat  more  valuable  pound  for 
pound  than  choice  cottonseed  meal.  It  is  palatable  to  dairy  cattle 
and  is  a  very  excellent  feed  for  milk  production.  Due  to  its 
high  fat  content,  peanut  oil  meal  will  become  rancid  on  storage 
in  hot  weather.  Sometimes  the  product  sold  as  meal  has  been 
adulterated  with  shucks.  Such  an  adulteration  lowers  the  pro- 
tein content  and  raises  the  fiber.  Thus,  a  meal  which  falls  much 
below  the  average  in  these  respects  should  be  regarded  with 
suspicion. 

Unhulled  peanut  oil  feed  has  one-third  less  protein  than  the 
meal  and  four  times  as  much  fiber,  clue,  of  course,  to  including 
the  shucks.  We  do  not  believe  the  farmer  should  purchase  a  feed 
containing  peanut  shucks. 

434.  Cocoanut  oil  meal. — The  dried  kernels  of  the  cocoanut, 
called  copra,  are  pressed  for  oil  which  is  used  largely  in  nut- 
oleos,  sold  as  butter  substitutes.  The  feed  is  also  called  copra  oil 
meal  from  the  name  of  the  dried  kernels.  It  has  a  protein  content 
of  somewhat  above  20  per  cent,  thus  ranking  much  lower  in  this 
respect  than  the  other  oil  meals.  On  the  basis  of  its  digestible 
nutrients  it  may  be  considered  nearly  as  valuable  pound  for  pound 
as  gluten  feed.  Cocoanut  oil  meal  has  a  pleasant  odor  and  taste 
which  make  it  palatable  to  dairy  cows  and  it  is  a  very  satisfactory 
feed  for  the  dairy  ration.  It  is  reported  not  to  keep  well  in  warm 
weather,  but  our  experience  is  that  this  difficulty  is  not  a  serious 
one,  provided  the  feed  is  dry. 

435.  Soybean  products. — The  soybean  is  a  very  important 
crop  in  the  Orient  and  is  rapidly  gaining  in  favor  in  the  temperate 
regions  of  the  United  States.  The  bean  is  rich  in  oil  which  is 
pressed  out  for  human  food  and  industrial  use,  leaving  soybean 
oil  meal  as  feed.  The  beans  themselves  are  also  being  advocated 
as  a  high  protein  home-grown  feed  which  could  be  substituted  for 
much  of  the  high  priced  protein  supplements  now  purchased. 


236  BETTER  DAIRY  FARMING 

Recent  experiments  with  laboratory  animals  and  with  hogs 
indicate  that  the  soybean  contains  protein  of  very  high  quality 
compared  to  other  vegetable  sources.  This  fact,  coupled  with  the 
excellent  results  obtained  in  the  limited  trials  that  have  been  made 
with  dairy  cows,  cause  us  to  regard  this  source  of  feed  as  one  well 
worth  trial  and  investigation. 

436.  Soybean  oil  meal. — The  residue  from  the  extraction 
of  oil  contains  somewhat  more  digestible  protein  and  total  di- 
gestible nutrients  than  choice  cottonseed  meal.  The  use  of  this 
feed  has  been  limited  to  certain  sections  of  the  country,  nota- 
bly to  the  Pacific  Coast  where  it  is  imported  from  the  Orient. 
There  are  some  mills  in  the  South  where  soybeans  are  pressed 
but  the  amount  of  the  oil  meal  on  the  market  is  very  limited. 
It  appears  to  be  highly  liked  by  dairymen  where  it  has  been 
tried  and  farmers  may  well  bear  this  in  mind,  as  an  increasing 
output  may  be  expected. 

437.  Sugar  factory  by-products. — The  two  sources  of  the 
sugar  used  on  the  table  are  the  sugar  cane  and  sugar  beet.  Most 
of  the  molasses  used  for  feed  is  a  by-product  from  the  manufacture 
of  cane  sugar.  The  beet  sugar  process  furnishes  dried  beet  pulp 
as  well  as  some  beet  molasses. 

438.  Cane  molasses. — A  good  grade  of  cane  molasses  should 
contain  not  less  than  53  to  55  per  cent  of  total  sugar,  not  over 
6  per  cent  of  ash  and  not  over  21  to  22  per  cent  of  water.  The 
feeding  value  of  molasses  is  based  primarily  on  its  sugar  content. 
It  contains  some  3  per  cent  of  protein  but  only  one-third  of 
this  is  digestible.  There  is  no  fat.  An  average  grade  of  molasses 
is  worth  about  three-fourths  as  much  as  corn  meal  on  the  basis  of 
its  total  digestible  nutrients,  though,  of  course,  it  has  much  less 
protein.  However,  molasses  has  a  special  value  in  toning  up  the 
system  and  in  keeping  the  bowels  open.  It  also  puts  a  nice  smooth 
coat  on  the  animal.  Because  of  these  beneficial  effects,  many 
feeders  like  to  have  a  little  molasses  in  the  ration  even  though  it 
may  be  a  costly  source  of  total  digestible  nutrients.  Particularly 
this  is  true  in  rations  for  cows  on  test.  For  this  purpose  molasses 
finds  a  very  general  use. 


THE  OIL  MEALS  237 

439.  How  to  feed  molasses. — The  feeding  of  molasses  pre- 
sents some  difficulty.  The  best  way  is  to  thin  it  with  warm  water 
and  pour  it  over  the  roughage.  Used  in  this  way,  an  extra  amount 
of  roughage  will  be  consumed.  Particularly,  molasses  will  add 
palat ability  and  increase  the  consumption  of  poor  roughage. 
Molasses  diluted  with  water  may  be  used  to  soak  up  beet  pulp. 
This  is  a  frequent  practice  in  feeding  test  cows. 

We  are  in  favor  of  5  to  10  per  cent  of  molasses  in  the  dairy 
ration  provided  it  can  be  bought  at  a  reasonable  price.  We  are 
willing  to  pay  somewhat  more  for  it  than  its  digestible  nutrients 
would  warrant,  due  to  its  special  properties.  These  properties 
are  of  particular  value  where  no  silage  is  fed.  In  the  ordinary 
ration  with  silage  available,  we  do  not  recommend  the  purchase 
of  molasses  where  it  costs  more  than  corn. 

440.  Beet  molasses. — This  product  is  the  residue  from  the 
crystallization  of  sugar  out  of  beet  ju:ce.  It  contains  fully  as 
much  sugar  as  cane  molasses  but  has  a  distinct  disadvantage  as 
a  feed  due  to  its  content  of  alkaline  salts  which  give  it  a  purgative 
action.   Thus,  beet  molasses  can  be  fed  in  limited  quantities  only. 

441.  Dried  beet  pulp. — After  extracting  the  juice  from  the 
sugar  beets  there  remains  a  residue  which  when  dried  contains 
9  per  cent  of  protein,  60  per  cent  of  nitrogen  free  extract,  and  19 
per  cent  of  crude  fiber,  with  about  1  per  cent  of  fat.  On  the 
basis  of  its  nutrient  content  it  ranks  somewhat  below  corn  in 
feeding  value  and  its  high  fiber  content  limits  the  amount  that 
can  be  used  in  the  ration.  However,  beet  pulp  is  a  very  useful  feed 
because  of  its  palatability,  bulk  and  laxative  effect.  These  qualities 
cause  it  to  be  highly  esteemed  to  lighten  up  a  heavy  ration  fed 
cows  on  test.  It  has  another  property  which  gives  it  special  value. 
It  will  absorb  two  or  three  times  its  weight  of  water.  Thus  moist- 
ened beet  pulp  may  be  used  to  furnish  succulence  where  no  silage 
or  roots  are  to  be  had.  Similarly,  diluted  molasses  can  be  fed 
on  it  as  has  been  mentioned. 


SU»  CoM* 


APPENDIX 


THE   CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION   OF   COMMON 
FEEDINGSTUFFS 

In  Table  I  are  given  figures  for  total  analysis  and  for  digestible 
nutrients  in  the  common  feedingstuffs  used  for  dairy  animals. 
This  table  has  been  compiled  mainly  from  the  extensive  data  in 
Tables  I  and  III  of  " Feeds  and  Feeding,"  eighteenth  edition,  by 
Henry  and  Morrison,  by  special  permission  of  the  authors. 

Table  I.    Analyses  of  Feedingstuffs 


Feedingstuffs 


Concentrates 

Barley,  ground 

Beans,  navy,  ground 

Beet  pulp,  dried 

Brewers'    grains, 

dried 

Buckwheat,  ground.. 
Buckwheat 

middlings 

Cocoanut  meal 

Corn,  dent,  ground. . 
Corn-and-cob  meal .  . 
Corn  and  oat  feed. .  . 

Corn  germ  meal 

Cottonseed  meal, 

43% 

Cottonseed  meal, 

36% 

Distillers'  grains, 

dried,  corn 

Dried  blood 

Fish  meal 

Gluten  feed,  corn 

Gluten  meal,  corn. .  . 

Hominy  feed 

Kaffir  grain 

Linseed  oil  meal 


Water 

Per 

cent 


9.3 
13.4 

8.2 


12.0 
10.2 
11.3 
10.4 
11.4 
8.9 

7.5 


6.6 

9.7 

10.5 

8.7 

9.1 

10.1 

11.8 

9.1 


Total  Nutrients 


Ash 
Per 

cent 


2.7 
3.6 
3.5 

3.5 
2.1 

4.8 
5.6 
1.3 
1.5 

2.8 
2.7 

6.2 

6.4 

2.6 
3.3 
28.1 
2.1 
1.1 
2.6 
1.7 
5.4 


Crude 

Protein 

Per 

cent 


11.5 

22  7 

8.9 

26.5 
10.8 

28.3 

20.7 

9.3 

8.5 

9.6 

22.6 

44.1 

37.6 

30.7 
82.3 
51.4 
25.4 
35.5 
10.6 
11.1 
33.9 


Carbohydrate 


Fiber 
Per 
cent 


4.6 

5.8 
18.9 

14.6 

10.3 


10.3 
2.3 
7.9 
7.4 
9.0 


11.5 
11.6 


7.1 
2.1 
4.4 
2.3 

8.4 


N.F.E. 
Per 
cent 


69.8 
53.0 
59.6 

41.0 
62.2 

42.7 
44.8 
72.0 
67.6 
65.0 
46.0 

25.0 

28.4 

36.3 

3.8 

52.9 
47.5 
64.3 
70.1 
35.7 


Fat 
Per 
cent 


2.1 
1.5 
0.9 

6.9 
2.5 

7.4 
8.4 
3.8 
4.1 
3.8 
10.8 

9.1 

8.2 

12  2 
0.9 

8.3 
3.8 
4.7 
8.0 
3.0 
7.5 


Digestible  Nu- 
trients in  100  lbs. 


Crude 

Protein 

Lbs. 


9.0 

18.8 
4.6 

21.5 

8.1 

24.6 

18.6 

6.9 

6.1 

7.3 

16.5 

37.0 

31.6 

22.4 
69.1 
40.1 
21.6 
30.2 
7.0 
9.0 
30.2 


T.D.N. 
Lbs. 


79.4 
71.9 
71.6 

65.7 
63.4 

76.6 

78.8 
83.8 
78.1 
75.6 
82.5 

7S.2 

74.8 

88.9 
71.1 
58.8 
80.7 
84.0 
84.6 
80.0 
77.9 


238 


APPENDIX 


239 


Table  I.    Analyses  of  Feeding  stuffs  —  {Continued) 


Feedingstuffs 


Malt  sprouts 

Molasses,  cane  or 
blackstrap 

Oats,  ground 

Peanut  oil  meal 

Red  dog  flour 

Rice  bran 

Rye,  ground 

Rye  feed 

Skim  milk 

Soybean  seed 

Soybean  oil  meal 

Tankage,  60%  pro- 
tein   

Wheat,  ground 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  mixed  feed. . . 

Wheat  middlings, 
flour 

Wheat  middlings, 
standard 

Whey 

Dry  roughage 

Alfalfa  hay,  whole 
or  ground 

Barley  straw 

Bean  straw 

Clover  hay,  alsike. . . 

Clover  hay,  red 

Corn  fodder 

Corn  stover 

Kaffir  fodder 

Millet,  common  or 
Hungarian 

Mixed  hay,  all  grasses 

Mixed  hay,  clover 
and  timothy 

Oat  hay 

Oat  straw 

Peas,  field,  hay 

Peas  and  oats 

Peas,  oats  and  bar- 
lev  


Total  Nutrients 


Water 
Per 
cent 


7.6 

25.7 

9.2 

6.6 

11.1 

10.1 

9.4 

11.5 

90.1 

9.9 

10.5 

7.9 
10.2 
10.1 
10.1 

10.7 

10.5 
93.4 


14.2 
10.5 
12.3 
12.9 
18.3 
19.0 
9.0 

14.3 

12.8 

12.2 
12.0 
11.5 
11.1 
16.6 

16.5 


Ash 
Per 
cent 


6.1 

6.1 
3.5 
4.8 
2.5 
9.7 
2.0 
3.8 
0.7 
5.3 
4.9 

15.3 
1.9 
6.3 
5.2 

3.7 

4.4 
0.7 


8.6 
5.7 
7.2 
8.3 
7.1 
5.0 
5.5 
9.4 

6.3 
5.6 

6.1 
6.8 
5.4 
7.9 
7.3 

6.0 


Crude 

Protein 

Per 

cent 


26.4 

3.2 
12.4 

44.8 
16.8 
12.1 
11.8 
15.3 
3.8 
36.5 
43.2 

60.4 
12.4 
16.0 
16.8 

17.8 

17.4 
0.8 


14.9 
3.5 
7.3 
12.8 
12.8 
6.7 
5.7 
8.9 

8.3 
7.6 


8.4 

3.6 

15.1 

11.4 

12.6 


Carbohydrates 


Fiber 
Per 

cent 


12.' 


4.3 
5.3 

5.3 

2.2 
9.5 
7.6 

4.7 

6.0 


28.3 
36.0 
30.8 
25.7 
25.5 
22.0 
27.7 
26.8 

24.0 

28.8 

29.9 
28.3 
36.3 
24.5 
25.6 

29.5 


N.F.E. 
Per 
cent 


45.6 

65.0 
59.6 
26.0 
63.3 
44.3 
73.2 
61.5 
5.2 
26.5 
29.5 

3.7 
71.2 
53.7 
55.7 

58.1 

56.8 
4.8 


37.3 
39.1 
42.9 

38.4 
38.7 
45.8 
40.9 
43.1 


40.8 
41.7 
40.8 
37.9 
36.5 

32.4 


Fat 
Per 
cent 


1.5 


4.4 

10.2 

4.1 

11.4 

1.8 

3.2 

0.2 

17.5 

6.6 

7.4 
2.1 
4.4 

4.6 

5.0 

4.9 
0.3 


2.3 
1.5 
1.3 

2.5 
3.1 

2.2 
1.2 

2.8 

2.8 
2.5 

2.4 
2.8 
2.4 
3.5 
2.6 

3.0 


Digestible  Nu- 
trients in  100  lbs. 


Crude 

Protein 

Lbs. 


20.3 

1.0 

9.7 

40.3 

14.8 

7.9 

9.9 

12.2 

3.6 

33.2 

39.7 

56.2 

9.2 

12.5 

12.9 

15.7 

13.4 
0.8 


10.6 
0.9 

3.6 
7.9 
7.6 
3.0 
2.1 
4.1 

5.0 
4.3 

4.0 

4.5 

1.0 

12.2 

8.3 

9.2 


T.D.N. 
Lbs. 


240 


BETTER  DAIRY  FARMING 


Table  I.    Analyses  of  Feedingstufs — (Continued) 


Feediagstuffs 


Prairie  hay 

Sorghum  fodder 

Timothy  hay 

Wheat  straw 

Fresh  green 
roughage 

Alfalfa 

Alfalfa  silage 

Beets,  garden 

Carrots 

Clover,  red 

Clover,  red,  rowen.  . 
Corn   and   soybean 

silage 

Corn  fodder 

Corn  silage 

Corn  stover  silage. . . 

Kaffir  fodder 

Mangels 

Millet,  common  or 

Hungarian 

Mixed  grasses 

Oat  fodder 

Oat  and  pea  silage.  . 
Pea,  field,  Canada... 

Peas  and  oats 

Pea    cannery    refuse 

silage 

Potatoes 

Pumpkins 

Rape 

Rutabagas 

Sorghum  fodder 

Soybeans 

Soybean  silage 

Sunflower  silage 

Timothy 

Wheat  fodder 


Total  Nutrient? 


Water 
Per 
cent 


6.5 

9.7 

11.6 

8.4 


74.7 
46.0 
87.0 
88.3 
73.8 
65.6 

74.9 

78.1 
73.7 
79.4 
76.4 
90.6 

72.4 
70.3 
87.0 
69.9 
83.4 
77.4 

76.8 
78.8 
91.7 
83.3 
89.1 
75.1 
76.4 
72.8 
78.1 
62.5 
72.6 


Ash 
Per 

cent 


7.7 
7.8 
4.9 
5.2 


2.4 
5.3 
1.5 
1.2 
2.1 
2.5 

2.0 
1.2 
1.7 
1.3 
1.9 
1.0 

2.1 
3.0 
1.6 
3.0 
1.6 
2.0 

1.3 
1.1 


Crude 
Protein 

Per 

cent 


8.0 
7.4 
6.2 
3  1 


4.5 
10.0 
1.6 
12 
4.1 
5.3 

2.6 
1.9 
2.1 
1.5 
2.4 
1.4 

2.9 
5.1 
4.9 
4.1 
3.6 
3.2 

2.8 
2.2 
1.4 
2.9 
1.2 
1.5 
4.1 
4.2 
2.0 
3.1 
3.6 


Carbohydrates 


Fiber 
Per 
cent 

30.5 
26.1 
29.8 
37.4 


7.0 
14.2 
0.9 
1.1 
7.3 
9.1 

6.7 
5.2 
6.3 

6.8 
6.6 
0.8 

8.4 
6.3 
1.7 
10.0 
4.0 
6.3 

6.5 
0.4 
1.3 
2.6 
1.4 
7.0 
6.3 
7.9 
6.4 
11.7 
7.5 


N.F.E. 
Per 
cent 

44.7 
45.9 
45.0 
44.4 


10.4 
22.0 
8.9 
8.0 
11.7 
16.2 

12.8 
13.0 
15.4 
10.5 
12.0 
6.1 

13.3 

13.8 
4.0 

11.7 
6.9 

10.1 

11.3 

17.4 

4.2 

8.4 

7.0 

14.0 

9.8 

10.1 

10.2 

19.3 

12.8 


Fat 
Per 
cent 


2.6 
3.1 
2.5 
1.5 


1.0 
2.5 
0.1 
0.2 
1.0 
1.3 

1.0 
0.6 
0.8 
0.6 
0.7 
0.1 

0.9 
1.5 

0.8 
1.3 
0.5 
1.0 

1.3 
0.1 
0.5 
0.6 
0.3 
1.0 
1.0 
1.5 
1.1 
1.2 
0.8 


Digestible  Nu- 
trients in  100  lbs. 


Crude 

Protein 

Lbs. 


4.0 
2.8 
3.0 
0.7 


3.3 
5.1 
0.9 
1.0 
2.7 
3.3 

1.6 
1.0 
1.1 
0.6 
1.1 
0.8 

1.9 
3.6 
3.4 

2.8 
2.9 
2.4 

1.6 
1.1 
1.1 
2.6 
1.0 
0.7 
3.2 
2.8 
1.0 
1.5 
2.8 


APPENDIX 


241 


FEEDING  STANDARDS 
A  feeding  standard  is  a  statement  of  the  amount  of  digestible 
nutrients  required  by  an  animal  over  a  certain  period  of  time  for 
a  given  purpose,  such  as  milk  production,  growth,  etc.  Several 
investigators  have  worked  out  feeding  standards  for  the  various 
classes  of  animals.  We  reproiuce  here  in  Table  II  the  feeding 
standard  for  a  dairy  cow  worked  out  by  Professor  F.  B.  Morrison 
of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  as  published  in  " Feeds  and  Feeding," 
previously  mentioned. 

Table  II.     Morrison  Feeding  Standard  for  Dairy  Cows 

Total 
Digestible  Digestible 

Protein  Nutrients 

(pounds)  (pounds) 

1.  Dairy  cows* 

For  maintenance  of  1000-pound  cow.  .  . .  0.700  7.925 

To  allowance  for  maintenance  add: 

For  each  pound  of  2.5  per  cent  milk 0.045-0.053  0.230-0.256 

For  each  pound  of  3.0  per  cent  milk 0 .  047-0 .057  0 .  257-0 .  286 

For  each  pound  of  3.5  per  cent  milk 0.049-0.061  0.284-0.316 

For  each  pound  of  4.0  per  cent  milk 0.054-0.065  0.311-0.346 

For  each  pound  of  4.5  per  cent  milk 0.057-0.069  0.338-0.376 

For  each  pound  of  5.0  per  cent  milk 0 .  060-0 .073  0 .  362-0 .  402 

For  each  pound  of  5.5  per  cent  milk 0.064-0.077  0.385-0.428 

For  each  pound  of  6.0  per  cent  milk 0 .  067-0 .081  0 .  409-0 .  454 

For  each  pound  of  6.5  per  cent  milk 0.072-0.085  0.434-0.482 

For  each  pound  of  7.0  per  cent  milk 0 .  074-0 .089  0 .  454-0 .  505 

*Cows  producing  1  0  lb.  of  fat  daily  should  receive  about  21  to  25  pounds  dry  matter  per  1000 
pounds  live  weight. 

In  Table  II  the  figures  give  the  amount  of  nutrients  required 
for  a  24-hour  period.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  noted  that  a  certain 
amount  is  required  for  maintenance.  Figures  are  given  for  a  1000- 
pound  cow.  The  requirements  for  other  weights  are  proportional. 
An  800-pound  cow  would  require  only  eight-tenths  as  much. 
Next,  a  certain  amount  of  nutrients  is  added  according  to  the 
amount  and  richness  of  the  milk. 

These  figures  are  the  same  no  matter  what  the  weight  of  the  cow. 
In  stating  certain  limits,  instead  of  an  absolute  requirement  for 
each  unit  of  production,  Professor  Morrison  gives  an  opportunity 
for  choice  according  to  feed  costs.  He  states  that  feeding  the  upper 
limits  of  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients  will  usually  increase 


242  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 

production  slightly  but  that  it  may  not  be  economical  to  do  so 
where  feed  prices,  particularly  for  protein-rich  feeds,  are  high. 
Feeding  standards  are  used  for  computing  rations. 

442.  Computing  a  dairy  ration. — Suppose  it  is  desired  to 
compute  a  ration  for  a  1200-pound  cow  producing  30  pounds  of 
milk  testing  3.5  per  cent  fat,  using  those  feeds  which  at  current 
prices  will  give  the  cheapest  ration  and  still  be  satisfactory  in  other 
respects.  For  maintenance  the  cow  will  require  1.2  times  the 
requirements  for  a  1000-pound  cow  given  in  Table  II.  For  her 
production  requirements  we  will  use  an  average  of  the  limits  set 
in  the  table.  For  one  pound  of  3.5  per  cent  milk  this  would  be 
0.055  pounds  digestible  protein  and  0.30  pounds  total  digestible 
nutrients.  For  30  pounds  it  would  be  30  times  as  much.  The  cow's 
requirements  would  thus  be  as  follows: 


Digestible 
Protein 

0.84 
1.65 

Total 
Digestible 
Nutrients 

9.510 
9.000 

For  maintenance 

For  30  lbs.  of  3.5%  milk 

Totals 2.49  18.510 

The  above  shows  the  nutrients  the  cow  must  have  in  a  day's 
ration.  Suppose  there  are  red  clover  hay  and  silage  available  on 
the  farm.  To  obtain  the  proper  variety  at  least  three  concentrates 
must  be  bought.  The  next  thing  to  do  is  to  find  out  from  the  feed 
dealer  the  current  prices  of  various  feeds  and  compute  their  relative 
cost  in  terms  of  total  digestible  nutrients.  The  latter  can  be 
obtained  for  a  given  feed  by  multiplying  the  total  digestible  nutri- 
ents in  100  pounds,  as  given  in  Table  I,  by  20  and  dividing  the 
result  into  the  price  per  ton.  This  result,  the  cost  per  pound 
T.D.N.,  multiplied  by  100  gives  cost  per  100  pounds  T.D.N. 
This  is  illustrated  below  for  hominy: 

$38.05 

X100  =  $2.25 


84.6X20 
Suppose  the  following  feeds  are  available  at  the  prices  named: 


APPENDIX  243 

tv_j_  Cost  Cost  per 

^                  ,  per  ton         100  lbs.  T.»N. 

Corn  meal $36.50  $2.18 

Hominy  feed 38.05  2.25 

Flour  middlings 38.80  2.48 

Standard  middlings 35 .  05  2 .  53 

Wheat  mixed  feed 36.30  2.71 

Ground  oats 38 .  60  2 .  74 

Wheat  bran 35.05  2.88 

Gluten  feed 49 .  80  3 .  09 

Cottonseed  meal,  43% 58.05  3.71 

Linseed  oil  meal 59 .  05  3 .  80 

Having  the  necessary  information  as  to  feeds  available  we  are 
ready  to  select  the  kinds  and  amounts  to  be  used.  When  a  cow 
is  fed  the  right  proportion  of  roughage  to  concentrates  she  will 
consume  daily  about  one  pound  of  hay  and  three  pounds  of  silage 
for  every  hundred  pounds  of  live  weight.  Thus,  as  a  starting 
point  we  decide  that  our  ration  should  contain  12  pounds  of  hay 
and  36  pounds  of  silage.  The  next  problem  is  to  select  the  grain 
ration  so  as  to  make  up  the  rest  of  the  requirements.  At  the  same 
time  we  must  keep  the  dry  matter  within  the  limits  noted  under 
Table  II.  Of  course,  if  we  added  enough  we  could  get  all  the  re- 
quirements by  using  only  low  protein  feeds,  but  this  would  increase 
the  dry  matter  much  above  the  upper  limit  and  might  make  the 
ration  in  excess  of  what  the  cow  would  consume.  The  dry  matter 
allowance  for  a  1200-pound  cow  is  1.2  times  that  given  in  the  note 
in  Table  II,  or  25  to  30  pounds. 

Experience  tells  us  that  to  get  sufficient  protein  and  the  proper 
amount  of  dry  matter  in  a  grain  mixture  a  part  of  it  must  come 
from  a  high  protein  feed.  Gluten  feed  is  the  cheapest  feed  in  this 
class  according  to  the  table.  Hominy  is  a  cheap,  low  protein 
feed,  but  we  cannot  make  the  mixture  entirely  of  gluten  and 
hominy  because  it  would  lack  variety  and  come  entirely  from 
one  plant.  Thus,  let  us  include  one  of  the  wheat  feeds.  We  prefer 
bran  to  middlings  but  it  costs  considerably  more  and  we  may 
compromise  by  using  a  mixture  of  the  two — wheat  mixed  feed. 
We  will  also  select  ground  oats  to  use  in  a  small  amount  to  add 
further  variety.  Next  we  start  constructing  the  table  shown  on 
page  244  trying  different  amounts  of  the  concentrates  selected 
until  the  figures  come  out  as  we  want  them. 


Total 

Digestible 

Digestible 

Protein 

Nutrients 

.912 

6.11 

.396 

6.37 

.140 

1.69 

.097 

.70 

.387 

2  01 

.432 

1.61 

244  BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


Dry 
Feeds  Matter 

12  lbs.  red  clover  hay 10 .  45 

36  lbs.  corn  silage 9 .  47 

2  lbs.  hominy  feed 1 .80 

1  lb.    ground  oats .91 

3  lbs.  wheat  mixed  feed 2.70 

2  lbs.  gluten  feed 1.83 

Totals 27.16  2.364  18.49 

Table  I  does  not  give  figures  for  dry  matter  but  they  can  be 
obtained  by  subtracting  the  figures  for  water  from  100.  To  con- 
struct the  above  table  we  thus  multiplied  the  pounds  of  each  feed 
by  the  appropriate  figure  for  analysis  from  Table  I,  remembering 
that  we  had  to  point  off  two  places.  For  example,  the  computation 
for  clover  hay  was  as  follows: 

12 X  (100— 12.9)  =  10.45  lbs.  dry  matter 

12  X  7 . 6  =      .912  lbs.  digestible  protein 

12X50.9  =   6.11  lbs.  T.D.N. 

It  takes  some  time  to  construct  the  table  so  as  to  have  it  come 
out  the  way  we  want  it,  but  it  goes  much  easier  after  a  little  prac- 
tice. It  is  easy  to  get  the  dry  matter  to  come  in  the  range  specified. 
We  try  to  come  within  .2  pounds  for  the  digestible  protein  and 
.5  pounds  for  the  total  digestible  nutrients.  The  grain  mixture 
we  have  selected  would  cost  16.2  cents  for  the  eight  pounds  for 
a  day's  feeding,  or  $40.40  per  ton. 

We  like  to  have  some  oil  meal  in  the  dairy  ration  where  it  is 
not  too  expensive.  Here  is  a  mixture  containing  it  which  would 
meet  the  requirements: 

Dry 
Feeds  Matter 

12  lbs.  red  clover  hay 10 .  45 

36  lbs.  corn  silage 9 .  47 

3  lbs.  hominy 2 .  70 

3  lbs.  wheat  mixed  feed 2.70 

lib.    gluten  feed .91 

1  lb.    linseed  oil  meal .91 

Totals 27.14  2.423  18.62 


Total 

Digestible 

Digestible 

Protein 

Nutrients 

.912 

6.11 

.396 

6.37 

.210 

2.54 

.387 

2.01 

.216 

.81 

.302 

.78 

APPENDIX  245 

This  mixture,  containing  slightly  more  protein,  would  cost  16.6 
cents  for  the  day's  feeding  or  $41 .  50  per  ton. 

Of  course  this  method  is  too  complicated  for  regular  use.  The 
methods  for  putting  together  rations  we  have  discussed  in  Chapter 
II  are  more  practical.  However,  the  question  frequently  comes 
up  as  to  whether  a  given  ration  contains  enough  protein,  or  as  to 
whether  a  cow  is  getting  the  right  amount  of  nutrients  for  her 
production.  Her  ration  can  be  easily  checked  up  against  the 
feeding  standard.  Finding  whether  a  ration  corresponds  to  the 
standard  is  much  simpler  than  trying  to  make  one  fit  it.  For 
example,  is  10  pounds  of  mixed  hay,  25  pounds  of  silage  and  8 
pounds  of  equal  parts  of  wheat  bran  and  gluten  feed  a  satis- 
factory ration  for  a  1200-pound  Holstein  cow  producing  25  pounds 
of  milk?  Such  a  question  came  to  us  recently.  The  nutrient  con- 
tent of  the  ration  works  out  as  follows: 

-,-,     j  Dry  Digestible 

Feeds  Matter  Protein  T.D.N. 

10  lbs.  mixed  hay 8.72  .430  5.13 

25  lbs.  corn  silage 6.58  .275  4.43 

4  lbs.  wheat  bran 3.60  .500  2.44 

4  lbs.  gluten  feed 3.65  .864  3.23 

Totals 22.55  2.069  15.23 

The  cow's  requirements  are  as  follows,  assuming  3.5  per  cent 
milk: 

Digestible 
Protein  T.D.N. 

For  maintenance 0 .  840  9 .  51 

For  25  lbs.  of  3.5%  milk 1.375  7.5 

Totals 2.215  17.01 

Thus,  the  ration  is  adequate  as  regards  protein  but  low  in  total 
digestible  nutrients  and  dry  matter.  It  could  be  corrected  by 
increasing  the  roughage.  This  would  probably  also  add  more 
protein  than  necessary,  making  it  possible  to  substitute  at  least 
one  pound  of  a  lower  protein  concentrate  which  would  cheapen  the 
grain  ration,  or  perhaps  one  pound  of  the  concentrates  could  be 
omitted  without  further  addition.  However,  the  grain  ration  lacks 
variety  as  it  stands. 


246 


BETTER   DAIRY   FARMING 


WEIGHTS   OF  VARIOUS   CONCENTRATES 

A  grain  mixture  will  have  the  proper  bulk  if  a  quart  of  it  weighs 
not  more  than  a  pound.  Thus,  in  making  up  such  mixtures  it  is 
useful  to  know  the  relative  weights  of  the  common  feeds.  The 
following  table  is  taken  from  " Feeds  and  Feeding."  eighteenth  edi- 
tion, by  special  permission  of  the  authors: 

Table  III.    Weights  of  Various  Concentrates 


Feedingstuff 


Barley,  whole 

Barley,  ground 

Beans,  navy 

Beet  pulp,  dried 

Brewers'   grains 

dried 

Buckwheat,  whole. . 
Buckwheat 

middlings 

Cocoanut  meal 

Corn,  whole 

Corn-and-cob  meal . 

Corn  meal 

Corn  germ  meal 

Cottonseed  meal 

Distillers'  grains 

dried 

Gluten  feed 

Gluten  meal 


One 
quart 
weighs 


Lbs. 
1.5 
1.1 
1.7 
0.6 

0.6 
1.4 

0.9 
1.5 
1.7 

1.4 
1.5 

1.4 
1.5 

0.6 
1.3 
1.7 


One 

pound 

measures 


Qts. 
0.7 
0.9 
0.6 
1.7 

1.7 
0.7 

1.1 
0.7 
0.6 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 

1.7 

0.8 
0.6 


Feedingstuff 


Hominy  feed 

Linseed  oil  meal.  . 

Malt  sprouts 

Molasses,  cane .... 

Oats,  whole 

Oats,  ground 

Rice  bran 

Rye,  whole 

Rye,  ground 

Rye  feed 

Soybeans 

Wheat,  whole 

Wheat,  ground.  .  .  . 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  mixed  feed . 
WTheat  middlings, 

flour 

Wheat  middlings, 

standard 


One 

quart 
weighs 


Lbs. 
1.1 
1.1 
0.6 
3.0 
1.0 
0.7 
0.8 
1.7 
1.5 
1.3 
1.8 
1.9 
1.7 
0.5 
0.6 

1.2 

0.8 


(  im- 
pound 
measures 


Qts. 
0.9 
0.9 
1.7 
0  3 
1.0 
1.4 
1.3 
0.6 
0.7 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.6 
2.0 
1.7 

0.8 

1.3 


INDEX 


Abortion,  154-7 

bull  as  a  factor  in,  156 

causes  of,  154 

feeding  in  relation  to,  155,  156 

losses  from,  154 

prevention  of,  155,  156 

spread  of,  155 

veterinary  service  for,  156 
Accredited  herd  plan,  148 
Advanced  registry.  49 
Advertising  and  marketing  milk,  173,  174 
Afterbirth,  removal  of,  7,  157 
Alfalfa,  as  a  soiling  crop,  203 

enrichment  of  soil  by,  197 

how  to  get  a  stand  of,  198 

inoculation  for,  199 

lime  for,  199 

meal,  203 

seeding, 200 

silage,  203 

soil  for,  199 
Mfalfa  hav,  198-203 

as  a  feed,  9,  202 

curing,  200 

cutting,  200 

grain  mixtures  for,  3,  13 

yield,  198 
Alsike  clover,  205 
Analvses  of  feeds,  table  of,  238 
Ash  in  feeds,  191 
Ayrshire  bulls,  113 

cows,  111 

Babeock  test,  185 

Barley  and  its  bv-products,  228-229 

feed,  229 
Barns,  162-8 

arrangement  of,  163 

building  on  paper,  167 

covered  barnyard  for,  163 

facing  cows  in,  165 

light  in,  165 

location  of,  165 

plans  for,  162 

remodeling,  167 

ventilation  in,  165 
Beet  pulp,  dried,  17,  57,  237 
Bloat,  159 
Breed,  associations,  95,  96 

choice  of,  94 

magazines,  96 
Breeding,  136-143 

community,  113 

heredity  a  factor  in,  138 

inbreeding,  140 

line  breeding,  140 

points  for  success  in,  94 
Brewers'  grains,  228 
Brown  Swiss  cows,  114 
Buckwheat,  229 

middlings,  229 
Bulk,  11 
Bull,  age  to  begin  service,  133 

Ayrshire,  113 


Bull,  buying,  121-131 
community,  124 
exercise  for,  134 
feeding, 132 
for  a  grade  herd,  128 
grain  mixture  for,  133 
Guernsey,  106 
handling,  133 
Holstein,  103 
housing,  135 
impotence,  135 
improvement  with,  132 
Jersey,  110 

Milking  Shorthorn,  116 
purebred,  value  of,  92,  118 
the  ideal,  117-120 
tvpe,  129 
value  of,  118,  132,  136 

Calf  meals,  38-43,  75 

how  to  feed,  42 

proprietary,  39 
Calves,  30-48 

birth,  treatment  at,  30 

birth  weights,  30 

cleanliness  in  feeding,  34 

dehorning,  36 

dried  milk  for,  43 

feeding  on  pasture,  47 

grain  for,  32 

hay  for,  32 

ideal,  35 

lead  poisoning  in,  44 

pens  for,  33 

raising  on  calf  meal,  38 

raising  on  skim  milk,  31 

raising  on  whole  milk,  31 

raising  with  limited  use  of  milk, 
38 

scours  in,  34 

silage  for,  33 

teaching  to  drink,  30 

turning  to  pasture,  46 
Carbohydrates,  190 
Cellulose,  190 
Clean  milk,  its  production,  169-174 

cooling,  170 

essentials  for,  169 
Cleanliness 

in  feeding  calves,  34 

in  producing  milk,  169-72 
Clipped  oat  by-product,  227 
Clover,  alsike,  205 
Clover,  and  timothy,  204 

as  a  feed,  205 

culture,  203 

harvesting,  204 

in  rotations,  204 

red,  203-205 
Cocoanut  oil  meal,  235 
Cod  liver  oil,  52 
Community  breeding,  143 

bulls,  124 
Computing  a  ration,  242 


247 


248 


INDEX 


Co-operative  distribution  of  feeds,  70-81 

benefits  of,  78,  81 
Copra  oil  meal,  235 
Corn  and  cob  meal,  221 
Corn  and  its  by-Droducts,  221-223 
Corn  feed  meal,  222 
Corn  fodder,  208 
Corn  germ  meal,  222 
Corn  meal,  221 
Corn  silage,  213,  214 
Corn  stover,  208 
Cottonseed,  232 
feed,  233 
hulls,  232 
meals,  232 

feeding  of,  233 
Cows 

amount  to  feed  to,  17 

breeding  efficiency  of,  140 

buying  and  selling,  175-182 

capacity  in,  82,  85 

conformation  of,  83-91 

feeding  at  calving  time,  6 

feeding  on  pasture,  6,  23 

feeding  while  dry,  2 

fitting  for  sale,  180,  182 

fitting  for  show  ring,  180 

front  quarters  of,  83 

grain  mixtures  for,  2,  13,  24,  51,  55,  74 

ideal,  82-91 

individual  feeding,  18 

kind  wanted  by  buyers,  175-178 

middle  of,  85 

milk  veins  of,  89 

minerals  for.  3,  16 

on  test 

feeding  at  calving,  53 
fitting  rations  for,  51 
grain  mixtures  for,  55 
handling  at  calving,  53 
hay  for,  57 

method  of  feeding,  55,  56 
minerals  for,  52 
pasture  feeding,  58 
quarters  for,  60 
roots  for,  56 
silage  for,  57 
purebred,  sale  value  of,  94 
purebred,  superior  production  of,  92 
purebreds  or  grades,  92-97 
rear  quarters  of,  85 
selecting  for  breeding,  139 
standard  weights  of,  82 
temperament  of,  91 
training  for  show  ring,  182 
type  of,  86 
udder  of,  86 
vital  organs  of,  84 
water  for,  20,  60 
Cow-testing  associations,  183 
Crude  fiber,  190 

Dairy  improvement  clubs,  186 
Dehorning  calves,  36 
Digestibility,  12,  61,  193 
Distillers'  grains,  223 
Dried  skim  milk  for  calves,  43 
Dry  cows,  feeding,  2 

minerals  for,  3 

on  pasture,  6 
Dry  matter,  189 
Dry  period,  length  of,  1,  50 


Drying  off  the  cow,  1 

Exercise.  21,  134 

Fats,  190 
Feed  records,  184 
Feeding  standards,  241 
Feeds,  feedingstuffs, 

buying,  61-81 

buying  according  to  market, 65.  66 

buying  for  cash,  64 

buying  in  quantity,  64 

chemistry  of,  189 

composition  of,  189-193,  238 

co-operative  distribution  of,  70-81 

digestible  nutrients,  242 

digestibility  of,  12,  193 

high  protein.  12 

low  protein,  13 

manurial  value  of,  193-196 

measuring  value  of,  192 

medium  protein,  12 

proprietary,  67 

saving  money  in  buying,  65 

tables  of  analyses,  238 

with  public  formulas,  69,  74 
Fitting  cows  for  official  test,  50 
Flaxseed,  234 
Flies,  27 

Flour  middlings,  225 
Foot  rot,  159 

Garget,  158 

Gestation  Table,  141 

Gluten  feed,  223 

Gluten  meal,  223 

Goitre,  192 

Grain  mixtures,  amount  to  feed,  17 

cost  of,  12 

for  bulls,  133 

for  calves,  32 

for  cows  in  milk,  13,  24,  51,  75 

for  cows  on  test,  55,  56,  74 

for  dry  cows,  2 

for  young  stock,  32,  48,  75 

with  alfalfa  or  clover,  13 

with  mixed  hay,  15 

with  pasture,  24 

with  timothy,  14 
Grange  League  Federation  Exchange,  Inc.,  72 
Guernsey  bulls,  106 

cows,  104 

production,  105 

type,  105 

Hay,  197-209 

alfalfa,  198-203 

alsike  clover,  205 

computing  amount  in  mow,  208 

cowpea,  206 

curing  and  harvesting,  200,  201 

for  calves,  32 

for  cows,  3,  9,  57 

legume  vs.  non-legume,  197 

mixed, 207 

pea  and  oat,  206 

red  clover,  203-205 

soybean,  206 

timothy,  207 
Health,  an  essential  for  the  herd,  144 
Heifers,  feeding  of,  46-48 

when  to  breed,  48 


INDEX 


249 


Herd  improvement  by  keeping  records,  183-8! 
by  weeding  out  poor  cows,  187 
individual  records  essential  for,  183 
Holstein  bulls,  103 
cows,  98-103 

conformation,  101 
milk  system,  102 
type,  99 
Hominy  feed,  222 

Inbreeding,  139, 140 
Indigestion,  158, 159 
Iodine,  192 

Jersey  bulls,  110 

cows,  107-110 
milk,  109 
type,  109 

Lead  poisoning,  44 

Legume  hay  (see  clover,  alfalfa,  etc.) 

importance  in  ration,  9 

manurial  value  of,  194 

vs.  non-legume,  197 
Lice,  160 

Light,  importance  of,  21,  165 
Lime,  commercial  sources  of,  5 

in  rations,  4,  191 

vitamine  aiding  assimilation  of,  4,  20 
Line  breeding,  140 
Linseed  oil  meal,  232 

Malt  sprouts,  228 

Mangels,  220 

Manure,  care  of,  164,  193 

value  of  feeds  for,  193-196 

value  of  urine  as,  193 
Mating,  140 
Milk,  cooling,  170 

fever,  8 

flavors  and  odors  in,  171 

Guernsey,  106 

Jersey,  109 

marketing,  173 

production  on  alfalfa  and  silage  alone,  15 

tanks,  171 

testing  for  fat,  185 

veins,  89 

vitamines  in,  20 

weighing,  142,  185 
Milking  machines,  171 

individual  records  with,  172 

labor  saved  by,  171 

money  saved  by,  172 
Milking  Shorthorns,  bulls,  116 

cows,  114-116 

dual  function  of,  115 
Milking,  times  a  day,  22,  142 
Minerals  in  the  dairy  ration,  3,  16,  191 

for  cows  on  pasture,  25 

for  test  cows,  52 

proprietary,  16 

source  of,  5 
Molasses,  beet,  236 

cane,  236 

feeding  value  of,  236 
for  test  cows,  57 
how  to  feed,  237 

Neighborhood  breed  clubs,  186 
Nitrogen-free-extract,  190 


Non-legumes,  207 

Oat  feed,  227 

groats,  227 

meal  mill  by-product,  227 
Oats,  226-228 
Oil  meals,  232-236 

Premature  birth,  154 

Production  records,  183 

for  determining  breeding  value,  187 
for  herd  improvement.  187 
increased  sale  value  by,  188 

Protein,  189 

importance  in  ration,  11,  191 
quality  of,  190 

Rations,  how  to  compute,  242 
Records,  feed,  184 

official  (see  official  records) 

production  (see  production  records) 
Red  clever  (see  clover,  red) 

dog  flour,  225 
Register  of  merit,  49 
Regularity  in  feeding  and  milking,  21 
Rice,  bran,  230 

feed,  231 

polish,  231 
Roots,  17 

feeding  of,  220 

for  test  cows,  56 
Roughages,  dry,  197-208 

succulent,  209-220 
Rye,  230 

middlings  or  feed,  230 

Salt,  16 

Sanitation,  144 
Scours,  common,  34 

white,  35 
Screenings,  224 
Silage,  209-216 

as  supplement  to  pasture,  25 

calculating  amount  required,  212 

computing  amount  in  silo,  214 

corn,  213 

crops  for,  213 

for  calves,  33 

for  test  cows,  57 

from  frosted  corn,  214 

how  preserved,  209 

importance  in  ration,  10 

legume,  215 

substitutes  for,  17 

sunflower,  215 

year-round  succulence,  212 
Silos,  capacity,  212 

filling,  213 

size,  212 

types,  210 
Skim  milk  for  calves,  31 
Soiling  crops,  219-220 

planning  for,  219 

with  pasture,  25 
Soybean,  235 

hay, 206 

oil  meal,  236 
Sterility.  157 
Straw,  208 
Summer  dairying,  28 

Teat  troubles,  160 


250  INDEX 

Testing  milk  for  fat,  185  Variety  in  ration,  11 

Timothy  hay,  207  Ventilation,  21,  165 

Total  disgestible  nutrients,  61,  62,  241  Vitamines,  19 
Tuberculosis,  144-153  and  lime  assimilation,  20 

accredited  herd  plan  for,  148  in  milk,  20 

area  work  in,  149,  153  in  pasture  grass,  218 

how  it  starts,  145  in  rations,  19 

importance  of  owner  in  cleaning  up,  150  preservation  by  proper  curing,  202 

keeping  the  herd  clean  from,  153 

losses  from,  145  Warbles,  161 

nature  and  symptoms,  145  Water,  189 
physical  symptoms,  147  for  calves,  33 

preventing  spread  of,  147  for  cows,  20,  60 

problem  of,  144  Weighing  milk,  185 

should  owner  test,  151  Weights,  of  various  concentrates,  246 
Tompkins  County  plan  for,  150  standards  for  different  breve's,  82 

tuberculin  test  for,  147  Wheat  and  its  by-products,  223-225 
Two-year-olds,  feeding  of,  46-48  bran,  224 

middlings,  225 
milling,  223 
Udder,  size  of,  87  mixed  feed,  225 

structure  of,  86  Winter  dairying,  28 

teats  of,  89  Wire  in  feed,  161 
tissue  of,  88 

troubles,  6,  158  Yearlings,  feeding  of,  46-48 


684  p; 

02/04/02  *1£4 


SDjB 

V 


